Karbala: From a Spiritual to a Political Interpretation
Rasul Jafariyan
The uprising of Karbala as a religious and sacred jihad and a revolutionary political movement is the most durable movement in Shi'ah political history. This revolutionary movement was launched for reviving the laws of Islam, for rectifing religious and political deviations and for replacing the Umayyad regime with the Alawi Imami government...
Throughout the arguments about Ashura, the factors responsible for a spiritual interpretation need to be identified so that a proper analysis can be accomplished.
One of the facets of the incidence of Karbala is its emotional dimension. and this speedily made room for itself in the Shi'ah society. But it has to be noted that by relying on this dimension a direct political interpretation is not possible. On the other hand, attributing a legal proof to the peace concluded by Imam Hasan (A) and particularizing the uprising of Imam Husain (A) to his own individual self, and not generalizing it, are also responsible for reducing the scope of a political interpretation of Karbala and increasing the scope of a spiritual interpretation.
In the special conditions prevailing after Ashura, the Imams (A) gave basis importance to cultural aspects, and later on, its impact on the Imamiyyah Shi'ahs was that they used to give no credence to the prevailing political set up. As a result, the Shi'ahs, despite their possessing a profound political background gradually inclined towards a gnostic interpretation, and at the same time, the meaning of the term wilayat inatead of finding application in the political sense was used in the domain of metaphysics, and the discussion on imamate was handed over to theology (Kalam), although the role of the Ghali's in this regard was also significant.
Eventually the Imams (A) are identified as political figures and are even considered among the heads of the Sufis. It should not be forgotten that the Safavis too had a sufi beginning and their government retained that sufi despite the struggle of the fuqaha remained unchanged for a length of time and never totally disappeared.
Among the other factors which encourage an apolitical interpretation of Karbala is the classification of the manifest (zahir) and esoteric (batin) and their differentiation from each other. This classification has been accepted by a large number of Shi'ah mutakallimin (theologians) and is even today a contentious topic.
As alluded to earlier, although the Safavi impact in popularizing Shi'ism was really significant, the Safavis themselves viewed it from an apolitical stand point. Despite this, Shi'ism during their period, and even later, became more social, and this was due to its closer contact and presence in the political sphere. But during the Qajar period, the government disliked the involvement of the Shi'ah ulama in politics and this led to their being distanced from it, and during the Mashruteh (constitutional Movement) this lack of political experience caused serious problems for them.
After the month of Shahrivar 1320 (Sept, 1941) and specially the change which took place in the 1940s, the political stagnation among the Shi'ahs ended, and finally the comprehensive concept of wilayat-e-faqih was elucidated by Imam Khomeini (R).
The Philosophy of Recurrence of Mourning
Ceremonies for Imam Husayn (A)
Muhammad Ibrahim Jannati
Holding mourning ceremonies for Imam Husayn(A) is among the most important rituals and has many religious, moral and socio-political benefits. Thus throughout history, the enemies have been against holding such ceremonies by the Shi'ahs. These ceremonies have special and unique features, among them one can mention the fact that they portray a struggle against falsehood. They also help keep the religion alive through an emotional identification with an event, thereby strengthening the morale of the followers of the Master of Martyrs. In the mourning ceremonies held for Imam Husayn, one should avoid recounting stories that have no basis in reality. Only then these ceremonies can foster a spirit of struggle, sacrifice and martyrdom. Only then these ceremonies can serve as a model for enjoining the good and prohibiting the evil. A few points need to be observed in holding mourning ceremonies for Imam Husayn (A):
• The ceremonies must comply with logic and rationality as well as authoritative religious rulings.
• The ceremonies must explicate the aims of the uprising by Imam Husayn (A).
• The ceremonies should not contain any act which might be against the rules of religion.
• The ceremonies should stick to retelling the historical facts.
One of the tools which can portray the event of Ashura in an artistic fashion is the passion play or Ta'zieyah which can be the best tool if it follows artistic methods and if it avoids going
against logic and reason, or the actual events. Of course, Ta'zieyah needs to conform to the following principles:
•Its lyrics should be rational.
Ta'zieyah must be based on reality.
•It must conform to the rules of religion.
•It must be adapted to conform to the modern mentality of today's human communities.
One of the practices that is against religious rules in some of the mourning ceremonies is Qameh-Zani, (drawing blood through cutting one's scalp with a machete), a practice which is against reason and against the manner practiced by the Imams. This practice in no way can be considered among the authentic religious rituals.
Now all the conscious orators and writers should correctly state the aims of Ashura and should elucidate for the people what arc the inappropriate conducts practiced on, and wrong notions held about, Ashura.
The Messages and Achievements of the Movement of Ashura, and the Movements Inspired by It in the History of Islam and the Contemporary World
Sayyid Muhammad Mahdi Ja'fari
Why has the movement of Ashura become so prevalent? The answer to this question lies in the special characteristics found in the movement itself. The most essential element of this movement was its struggle for truth, which has caused it to be immortal.
This movement has had diverse achievements, among them are:
•Awakening the people who have yet to become conscious
•Externalizing the forces that are dormant within
•Shaking the foundation of oppression
•Teaching not only "how to live", but also "how to die"
•Teaching lessons in" martyrdom" as the best way for exposing falsehoode
•Teaching how to reform the oppressive and corrupt entities
•Teaching the revolutionary function of "memory" and those who remind
•Keeping the religion of Islam alive
•Providing proper guidelines to all revolutions.
The evaluation of sources and documents for Research on the Movement of Ashura:
The Case of the Maqtal al-Husayn of Abu Mikhnaf
Hojjatollah Joudaki
Abu Mikhnafs Maqtal al-Husayn includes the events that occurred between the death of Mu'awiyah in the year 60 H. and the martyrdom of Imam Husayn (A) and the captivity of his family in the year 61 H.
This Maqtal, written two generations after the events in Karbala, is the oldest extant Maqtal manuscript.
Abu Mikhnaf's Maqtal has 112 long and short reports.
Some reports are as long as one sentence and some are a few pages.
Abu Mikhnaf's sources are of three types:
1. General and well-known historical events
2. Eyewitnessed reports on Karbala
3. Second-hand reports from the eyewithnesses who were there on Ashura.
Most of the reports are of this type.
The institutionalization of the culture of Ashura
Sayyid Alireza Kebari
Our Islamic nation has lived with the culture of Ashura and Shi'ism and has become familiar with the models provided by Ashura and Shi'ism. Therefore, the nation brought about the Islamic revolution in the name of Allah in order to revive the divine values. The leadership of the movement was with the Master of the Martyrs (A) and his true descendant (The late Imam Khomeini R.) who had designed the Islamic Revolution to overthrow the phoney system of monarchy. The late Imam Khomeini (R) based the revolution on the models of the revolt of Imam Husayn (A) and the divine ideals. Hence, by optimal utilization of the old institution of the culture of Ashura, he was able to lead the Islamic Revolution to victory, an institution whose efficacy was developed from the time of Hadrat Adam (A) all the way through the Seal of the Prophethood (Prophet Muhammad S) and the Shi'ite Imams (A) The reformers and the God-seeking people, keeping in mind the memory of Ashura, had generalized the extent of the activity of this institution to all the vital phases of the society, the individual and the cultural pillars.
In this paper, I will focus on the social function of the institution of Ashura which has been a source of life, vitality and dynamism in the history of Shi'ism. In addition to the influence of the culture of Ashura on the persian literature and on the idioms, parables, customs and traditions of the Islamic Iran, attention will be paid to two issues: the Islamic Revolution and the Front (The war front of the Iraqi-Imposed war) as the results of this institution, the very results that are the source of pride.
Ashuraesque Management:
The Best Model for Development Management
Sulayman Khakban
In today's world, the development management is considered among the most important and the most sophisticated fields of the study of management because development management encompasses planning, organizing, hiring human resources, leadership and monitoring of a social system. Here, the model of management is indeed a function of the model of development. It can be a secular one or one based on divine precepts. Considering that development is the process which involves the process of thinking and acting of the indivisuals, directed towards achievement of a pre-determined goal or goals, Ashura portrays, in the best and most expressive manner, these two viewpoints:
The materialistic viewpoint and the divine viewpoint. Hence, one cannot claim that one has designed a model of development based on spirituality but, in the process of management, adopt the ways of the kings. Ashura is, therefore, a historical call to expose the evil and corrupt models of development and materialistic management in their attempt to suppress the divine values. In other words, Ashura shows the ends and the strategy of development.
If we look at Ashura from the standpoint of science of management, the colossal and indescribable power of leadership in the area of "motivation" becomes apparent. The case of Ashura's motivation is such that it has gone beyond time and space. This motivation is such that the word Ashura means the event plus the motivation. "Ashura" elicits deep emotional as well as intellectual responses. Imam Husayn had succeeded in
creating the highest type of motivation among his companion. Similarly, the late Imam Khomeini (R), tapping into the powerful energy inside the people, used this Ashuraesque motivation in motivating millions of people.
Ashuraesque motivation plays the most important role in the continuation of the revolution. "Seeking comfort" and "living a life in pursuit of luxury" are the two important signs of "reaction" and "regression to the values of Jahiliyyah". If the Ashuraeaque mitivation dies within us, it will divorce us from our ideals and true values.
Now the people and officials have two ways before them:
Either live in an Ashuraesque manner and die in an Ashuraesque manner or sink in the morass of luxurious palaces, and no longer move forward.
The Essence of Imam Husayn's Uprising and the Distortions and Wrong Conclusions Concerning it:
Their Root Causes and Ways of Countering Them
Muhammad Ali Khamseh and Hamid Barqi
The third Shi'ah Imam Hadrat Husain Ibn Ali(A) is the second fruit of the blessed nuptial bond of Ali (A) and the honorable daughter of the Noble Prophet (s). He was born on 3rd Sha'ban of the 4th Hijri and was named, like his elder brother, by the Prophet(S). He grew up in the loving bosom of the Noble Prophet (S) and his honorable mother Hadrat Fatimah (A), and the Prophet (S) said about him and his brother Hasan ibn Ali (A):
My two children, Hasan and Husain are the leaders (imams) of my Ummah irrespective of their controlling the reigns of power or not.
The most important incidence in the life of the Third Imam (A) is his struggle, sacrifice and martyrdom along with his children and companions in Karbala: an event which shook the mind and conscience of the people and caused the other events to be put into oblivion, and which still continues to exist and remain unforgettable in the annals of history.
The Hussayni uprising is a conscious revolution from the point of view of Imam Husain (A) as well as his family and companions. It is an Islamic Revolution and not an explosion, and is a multi-dimensional movement in which various factors are involved. These factors are: The factor of seeking allegiance (bay'at), the factor of invitation of the people of Kufa, and the factor of amr bil-ma'ruf and nahy anil-munkar (commanding good and forbidding evil). Each of these factors cast a specific duty upon Imam Husain (A), and he in turn reacted to all of them. But these three factors are not of the same importance, and each, within its own limits, adds value to the movement of Imam Husain (A).
This Divine Resurrection had some remarkable consequences such as falling from grace of the ruling clique, the occurrence of revolts and uprisings, and laying the foundation of the path of martyrdom.
The fact that numerous factors were involved in Imam Husain's (A) uprising has resulted in this event, which from the historical viewpoint does not involve any lengthy detail, becoming very complicated from the angle of exposition and fathoming its essence. This has led to its misuse, and distortions, both of word and meaning, that have taken place regarding the historical event of Karbala. Two types of factors, both general and particular, have been responsible for these distortions. Among them are: ulterior motives and enmity of the enemies, the sense of the myth present in man, and the inability to properly grasp the philosophy and purpose of Imam Husain's (A) uprising.
Accordingly, our duty vis-a-vis these distortions is to identify and counter them, and it is the responsibility of ulama and Islamic thinkers - while countering these distortions and destroying their myth, to enlighten the general public about the historical facts pertaining to it.
The Shi'i Imams and the Movement of Ashura
Sayyid Ahmad Khatami
"Revitalizing Ashura and its culture" was among the methods that the Imams (A) chose to ensure the survival of the school of the Prophet (S). Among these methods one can mention the fact that they exhorted the Shi'ahs to:
•make pilgrimage to Imam's Shrine, or recite his Ziyarat,
•compose poems in his memory,
•organize mourning ceremonies,
•lament over his sufferings,
•prostrate on his Torbat
Making pilgrimage to the shrine of Hadrat Imam Husayn (A) or reciting his Ziyarat is, in effect, an oath of allegiance to him.
The potency of the Ziyarat of Imam Husayn was such that the enemies of Ahl-al-Bayt alwaysopposed the visit to his shrine and on different occasions took measures to destroy it.
Imam's zyarat includes the following:
•introduction of Imam's personality,
•his role in reviving Islam,
•the nature of Ashura,
•the nature of his enemies
•homage to his loyal companions.
On the other hand, since poetry is one of the manifestations of the subtle side of the man's spirit, it can play an important role in propagating the message. The medium of poetry has been emphatically used for stating the message of Ashura. Hence, the committed Shi'ah poets have so far composed thousands of poems which have helped keep the memory of Imam Husayn's movement alive.
It has also been recommended that mourning ceremonies be held in memory of Imam Husayn (A). These ceremonies have been instrumental in reviving the path of Ahl al-Bayt who are the symbols of Islam. The red flags of Ashura that herald the dawning of the day of vengeance of the oppressed are put up in these ceremonies.
Among other methods, one can mention the fact that the Imams stressed the significance of lamentation in the mourning for Imam Husayn (A). Tears are the distillation of the most sacred, and the purest form, of human emotions. Crying for the Master of Martyrs shows the depth of devotion and love for that martyred beloved.
By prostrating on the Torbat of Imam Husayn (A), one is honoring freedom of spirit, love of God, self-sacrifice and renunciation in the path of religion. Torbat of Imam Husayn (A) calls us to compassion, mercy, kindness and love.
A Brief Outline of the Plan for Compilation of an Encyclopedia of Imam Husayn (A) and Ashura
Baha'aI-Din Khurramshahi
The compilation of reference works, especially encyclopedias, is something which is considered important nowadays. Furtunately in Iran a greater significance has come to be attached to the compilation and publication of encyclopedias during the last decade, and at the present about twenty different encyclopedias are in different stages of compilation or publication.
The advantage of reference works lies in their ability to provide concise, correct and well documented information on specialized topics. On the other hand, the biographies of great men of science and religion and particularly the biographies of the Ma'sumeen, may peace be upon them, is of greater interest to us as Shi'ite Muslims. Moreover, the revolutionary role of Imam Husain in the moral and intellectual revival of Islam and crystallization of Shi'ih ideals is of a singular significance.
In the modern era all revolutionaries have tried to lead and spiritually mobilize the people by taking recourse to the uprising of Imam Husain and offering a simple interpretation of it. This is quite manifest in the case of the Islamic Revolution of Iran. On this basis, the compilation and publication of an encyclopedia of Imam Husain and Ashura would meet the intellectual, religious social and cultural need of Iranian Muslims as well as other Muslims and Shi'is of the world.
Such an encyclopedia can either be compiled on a subject-wise basis or in the form of articles arranged alphabetically. Some of the main subject titles of this encyclopedia can be briefly referred to as follows:
1.Introduction.
2. A brief outline of the history of Islam, the seerah of the Prophet and biographies of Imam All and the Prophet's family (A).
3. A biography of Imam Husain (A) from birth until the ninth of Muharram of the year 61 H.
4.The references to Imam Husain (A) in the Noble Qur'an.
5.Imam Husain (A) as narrated in the Hadiths.
About 60 of such main topics, each of them with scores of entries under it, could be included.
An Investigation into the Famous Motto:
"Life Is But Ideal and the Fight for That Ideal"
Inayatullah Majidi
The phrase "Life is But Ideal and the Fight for That Ideal" has been turned into a motto. Different groups with differing ideological orientations have used this motto. We must determine whether this statement, which has been attributed to Imam Husayn (A) truly belongs to him or not. Also, we need to see if the meaning behind this sentence is in accordance with Islamic principles and beliefs.
Some believe that this sentence is not truly attributed to any specific person. Some contend that there is not any evidence for attributing this sentence to Imam Husayn (A). Some are of the opinion that this statement is definitely not a statement by Imam. Finally some have suggested that this statement belongs to one of the Egyptian writers.
What is really certain is that this statement lacks historical documentation and could not possibly belong to the Imam (A). In fact, the statement is one of the two parts of the following verse:
"In life, stand and fight for your belief (for) life is but
belief and struggling (for its sake)"
which has been attributed to Shawqi, the Egyptian poet.
Regarding the compatibility of this (verse) with the Islamic principles, there are two opinions:
1.Considering the meaning of the term "jihad" (struggle), the person to whom this statement is attributed must have meant the Monotheistic belief' by mentioning 'belief' and must have meant "religious struggle' by Jihad.
2.Considering the lexical meaning of the words "belier (Aqidah) and "struggle" (Jihad), what is meant here is the belief and struggle in their general sense, not in a specific ideological sense. But in Islam, the meaning of life is summarized in believing in the One God and the striving (Jihad) purely for gaining His approval, to the exclusion of all others and their approvals. This pure endeavor is considered "holy".
The Culture of Ashura
Rajab Ali Mazlumi
The question regarding the "culture of Ashura" should be asked from those who painfully witnessed what happened to the men of Ashura. Those who have just heard about Ashura are not the right persons to answer this question because they never experienced it first hand.
Those who were in the battlefield, saw themselves annihilated in the personality of Husayn (A) and kept silent.
There were also those who asked what went on with Husayn (A); they asked this question without being at all afraid of being killed or being sent to exile.
Never staying silent, never content in their silence, and never happy with the status quo, these people lamented over the separation from the beloved Husayn (A).
These people, who were left out of the scene of Karbala, were always ready to accept all manners of punishment, in every place and in every time, they cried Out...
And thus the committed literature and poetry of Ashura was born.
The Epic of Ashura in the Persian Poetry
Ali Mir-Ansari
There have been few studies on the reflection of the epic of Ashura in the Persian poetry from the middle part of the fourth century H. to the ninth century H. According to the extant documents from the fourth century, the Shi'ah poets who composed their poems in Persian were the first to pay homage to the Master of Martyrs in their poetry. Kisa'i Marvazi is among the top poets in this field.
After Kisa'i in the fifth century, such poets as Nasir Khosrow have had a keen interest in Imam Husayn (A) and have written on such topics as the status of Imam Husayn (A) as Imam and his martyrdom.
In the sixth century, great poets turned their attention to the epic of Ashura. These poets were Amir Mo'ezzi, Sana'ie Ghaznavi, Qavami Razi, Anvari Abivardi and Khaqani Shirvani. Some of these poets such as Abivardi and Khaqani are the luminaries in the firmament of the Persian literature whose Qasidahs are unparalleled. Among these poets one sees two Shi'ah poets from Ray: Qavami and Abul-Mafakher Razi.
In the seventh century, usually the poets with gravitation towards mysticism such as Mowlavi, Sa'di and especially Attar referred to Ashura and the martyrdom of Imam Husayn (A).
In the eighth century such poets as Awhadi Maraghi, Salman Savoji and Khajou-ye Kermani have written on Ashura. The reference to Ashura in Persian poetry of the poets just mentioned comes in five forms:
1.Short reference: In Qasidahs as an allusion
2.As an appeal: In asking Prophet Muhammad (S),
Imams (A) and other great men of religion to intercede before God on behalf of the sinners.
3.Account of Sorrows: A somewhat emotional poetry on Karbala, but one which is less emotional than an elegy.
4.Short elegy: In parts of a long Qasideh or in a Mathnawi.
5.Long elegy: We know of only four long and independent elegies that were composed in this five-hundred-year-long period, i.e. from the fourth to the ninth century H. The first one belongs to Qavami Razi, a Shi'ah poet. The other three belong to Salman Savoji, Awhadi Maraghi and Sayf Farghani who were Sunni. Of course, there are some doubts as to whether Salman Savoji was a Sunni. At any rate, the Shi'ah poets, were the pioneers in the field of composing elegies for Imam Husayn (A).
