The effects of the culture of Ashura on the Performance Arts of Iran
Ya'qoub Ali Borji
The culture of Ashura has had an active presence in all domains of the Iranian art. In this paper, I will focus on the effects of the culture of Ashura on the performance as well as religious arts by canvassing such fields as literature, design, calligraphy, theater, etc. Our people call such arts as Ta 'zieyah. Ta 'zieyah takes advantage of such powerful elements as poetry, storytelling, the art of oratory and music. If this art is reformed, it can be used as one of the beneficial and effective tools for the propagation of Shi' ism.
In this paper, I will first deal with the historical roots of these performances. In brief, I will concentrate on the evolution of this art since the rule of Safavids, a time in which researchers believe that this art came into existence. I will then refer to some interesting passages in the writings of the world travelers who visited Iran. Then I will turn to the views held by the jurists (Fuqaha) on the issue of Ta'zieyah. The views of such luminaries as Mirzay-e Na'eeni, Mirzay-e Qummi, Shaykh Ja'far Kashcf-ul-Gheta', Muhammad Kazim Tabtaba'i, Shahrudi, Hakim, Khu'ie and the late Imam Khomeini (R) will be discussed. Then I am going to discuss the critiques of Ta'zieyah. This last section constitutes the most extensive and the most important section of this paper. Actually the discussion is extensive because the criticisms directed at Ta 'zieyah could well he directed towards cinema, theater and television.
The criticisms directed at Ta 'zieyah have been divided into two parts:
1. The manner of presentation and the form,
2. The content and themes,
In the first section, I have dwelt on two important problems:
1. The problem of men impersonating women and vice versa: can men impersonate women? Wouldn't this impersonation be regarded as an act of Tashabbuh?
2. What are the rulings regarding the impersonation as regards men and women?
The jurists have two views regarding the issue of impersonation:
1. The prohibition of impersonation has been quite well established among the jurists since the time of Muhaqiq to our present era. Here I will discuss the views held by Muhaqiq, Shahid Thani and Muhaqiq of Kark.
2. The lack of any prohibition regarding impersonation which is known among our contemporary jurists. Here I will discuss the views of Moqaddass Ardebili, Shaykh Yusuf Bahrani, Shaykh Ansari, Muhammad Kazim Yazdi, Hakim and Khu'ie. I have also shown the rationale of both sides, those who believe in prohibition and those who do not.
Those who believe in prohibition have referred to three categories of Hadiths. We have proven that the majority of these Hadiths are weak in terms of their Sanad (document). Those Hadiths that are based on strong documents are not really supporting the prohibition. Hence, there is no evidence available to warrant the prohibition of impersonation. Even if we assume that impersonation is prohibited, wearing the cloths of the opposite sex for theatrical purposes does not fully qualify as an instance of Tashabbuh. Here I have referred to views held by the late Mirza-ye Qummi, Na'eeni, etc.
2. The problem of impersonating the infallible Imams and their enemies: In these performances, ordinary people play the role of Imam Husayn (A) and Hadrat Zaynab (A). This has caused some problem. Here we discuss the views of the late Na'eeni, Shaykh Ja'far Kashef-ul-Gheta', Ayatollah Khui'ie, et al.
By referring to the Holy Qur'an and the Sunnah of the prophet(S), I have proved that Ta'zieyah and the impersonation of the Imams is not an innovation, nor is it an insult. In the section on the problems regarding the content, I have discussed two very important problems:
• First, the lack of correspondence of most Ta'ziyahs with the historical sources,
• The problems which relate to the spirit of Ta 'ziyahs and their message.
The Culture of Ashura in the Lives & writing of ahl al-bayt(A)
Mohammad Ali chenarani
The history of mourning arid weeping for Imam Husayn (A) began from the early days of creation. Adam is reported to have been the first person who wept for the sufferings of Imam Husayn (A) According to the historical sources and books of Hadith, all the divine prophets and messengers, wept for Imam Husayn (A).
The Prophet of Islam (S) had a foreknowledge of what was to happen to his family. He knew beforehand and even informed those around him of all the suffering that his blessed household was to go through such as being killed in the most cruel manner, being taken into captivity and so forth. In many of the Hadiths that are attributed to Prophet Muhammad (S), he prophesied of the martyrdom of his beloved grandson Husayn (A) and mourned and wept for him.
The Shi'ah Imams, too, like their forefather Prophet Muhammad (A), were keen on mourning for Imam Husayn (A) and spared no efforts in keeping the memory of the Master of the Martyrs alive. The descendants of Imam Husayn continued this tradition, by holding open or secret, formal or informal mourning sessions in honor of that Master of the Men of Freedom, in their homes, at every opportunity that arose.
The ideological principles & social background of the movement of Ashura
Hajieh cheraghi
The ideological aspect of the events of Ashura is its most important feature. Among Ashura's ideological principles, one can mention the principle of exclusive worship of God (Tawhid-e ibadi) and the principle of enjoining the good and prohibiting the evil (al-amr bil-ma'ruf wa al-nahy an al-muunkar). The exclusive worship of Allah is manifested fully in the statement by Imam Husayn (A) (rizan bi qazayik : I fully accept Thy will). The aim of Imam Husayn (A) was to gain the contentment of Allah. He fulfilled his duty and did not hesitate to offer self-sacrifice.
The movement of Ashura and the revolt of Imam Husayn(A) manifests the pinnacle of the duty to enjoin the good and prohibit the evil and shows the limit of sacrifice in fulfilling this mandatory duty. This duty is referred to frequently in the speeches by Imam Husayn (A) and in his conduct. He refuses to sign a covenant with Yazid and revolts in order to save the religion of his maternal grandfather.
The Master of Martyrs (A) is the personification of Jihad and his martyrdom is the manifestation, in action, of the belief in the Day of Judgment. His Ashura reiterates in action, these aspects of his life.
Among the special characteristics of this revolt one can mention the choice of death and martyrdom, as opposed to death and ignominy, and the manifestation of perseverance (Sabr) as the distillation of Ashura. In a society from which the spirit of life has departed and requires a new life, one can revive it with a combination of love and a drive for change, thereby once again filling its veins with vitality.
Islam was about to be destroyed. Yazid had occupied the seat of power. The cries of the people were caged inside their breasts. Someone had to demonstrate the real truth of Islam, and that is exactly what Imam Husayn (A) did.
The Message of Ashura
Islam al-Dabbagh
This article contains two chapters having the following two
headings:
1.The doctrinal fundamentals and the socio-political background of the Movement of Ashura.
2.The Movement of Ashura and the station of Imam Husayn (A) after his martyrdom in the Sunni tradition.
In the first chapter, after an introduction, a history of coming to power of a depraved person named Yazid, his all out effort for acquiring the important Islamic post of Khilafat, his insistence on seeking an oath of allegiance (bay'at) from Imam Husain (A) and the prominent personalities of Madinah, and in contrast, Imam's (A) insistence on not taking this oath, has been provided.
Then the real basis and the doctrinal points concerning Imam's leaving Madinah and his using this move as an instrument of propagation against Yazid have been explained, and it has been pointed out that he did not leave Madinah in a State of fear because he travelled on the main road from Madinah to Mecca on which there was a regular traffic of caravans and travellers. Subsequently, the reason for choosing Mecca as an abode after leaving Madinah and the religious, Social and commercial peculiarities of this city have been discussed. As a result, the process of correspondence of the people of Kufa and of prominent personalities coming to meet him (A) started, and became more serious day by day, till finally
Muslim Ibn Aqil was dispatched to Kufa. But why did he(A) think of leaving Mecca after a period of time?
Why Kufa? The social, political and military conditions of this city and its residents, and the reason choosing it are discussed. Why was everyone telling Imam Husayn (A): Do not go to Kufa? Why was Yemen or the desert areas of the Arabian Peninsula not chosen?
The article continues with a discussion about: Did Imam Husayn (A) go towards Kufa with the intention of martyrdom? The different opinions in this regard have been mentioned and the best among them has been chosen on the basis of proofs and circumstantial evidence.
Why was the family taken along? is another issue dealt in the article, and the fact that due to the absence of reliable narrators the need for eyewitnesses along with the caravan for narrating the events is highlighted.
The significant points of the journey to Kufa from the viewpoint of sermons, poems, observations, and occurrences related to Ashura, and the alighting at Karabala are mentioned.
The night of Ashura, the fast changes in the enemy camp, fortitude withnessed in the front representing truth and the most important occurrences are discussed.
The concluding events of the day of Ashura and the last words of the Imam (A) to his companions and their reply to him finds mention.
A description of the start of the combat and its most exemplary instances is provided, and the impact of the saddening end of that day on the Umayyad regime and on the wife and children of Yazid and his commanders is highlighted.
The alteration of the historic event of Ashura and its dangers, the causes responsible for it, and the role of the ulama, preachers and speakers who narrate the events of Karbala in strengthening or countering it is emphasized.
The second chapter starts with some observations of Sunni ulama concerning Imam Husayn (A) and Ashura and the exegesis of the four Our'nic verses i.e. the Mubahalah, Tathir, Qurba and Abrar; in their reliable traditions and hooks.
The traditions about the martyrdom of lmam Husain (A) as mentioned in the reference books of the ahl al-sunnah are quoted.
The historical accounts of the Ahl al-Sunnah concerning the place of burila of Imam Husayn's (A) blessed head are quoted.
Accounts about the burial of some family members of Imam Husayn (A) in Egypt are given.
Later, by way of providing a suitable conclusion to this chapter, an account of the narrations of a great Shi'ah scholar about the miraculous qualities of the place of burial of Imam husain's(A) head in Cairo is provided.
Eventually a summary and the purpose of this discussion is mentioned in one page. It is noteworthy that we have provided the notes of the article after the concerned text within brackets, and in the second chapter, in view of brevity and the large number of sources used, we have abstained from providing additional notes.
Lessons from the Uprising of Imam Husayn (A)
Hashem al-Dabbagh
We begin evaluating the events of Ashura from the issue of covenant with Yazid. In a private meeting, Walid Ibn 'Utbah asks Imam to enter a covenant with Yazid. Imam says he prefers to discuss the matter the next day in public, and he leaves the meeting. After that, he makes his famous statement "We are the family of the prophethood, and the treasure house of the divine mission, and the companions of the angels ". We can learn from this statement that such an Imam will never enter a covenant with the corrupt Yazid.
In another lesson, which the master of Martyrs has taught us, he said, "We are never afraid of death as long as we remain on the right path." In another lesson, the caravan that will soon be thirsty, does not deny water to its own enemy, and hence shows the height of magnanimity.
Imam Husayn (A) teaches us with his conduct that one must fight, if need be, to one's martyrdom, wherever righteousness is neglected. In another lesson, Abulfadl al-Abbas (A), when faced with Shimr who offers to give him and his family immunity due to the family relations that exists between Shimr and him, refuses to accept the immunity and chooses to stay with Imam Husayn (A). These characteristics exist in other companions of the Master of Martyrs. His family were the best family and his companions were the best and most loyal companions. Another lesson we can draw from the events of Ashura: The story of Hurr-Ibn-e Yazid Riyahi who chose to shift camps and join the Imam exactly at the time when it became apparent that the Master of the Martyrs and his companions would suffer martyrd0m. Hurr's choice is a lesson to mankind.
Some of the lessons from the events in Karbala are:
•The exhortation of Wahab (by his mother) to rush to Imam's help. This led to Wahab's martyrdom.
•Great importance that Imam and his companions attached to Salat in the middle of a fierce battle.
•Sacrificing the loved ones for the sake of Truth and the religion of Islam.
•Supporting the religion, as the paramount duty. As Hadrat Abul-Fadl (A) said it, "I will support my religion forever."
•Composure, calmness and perseverance in the face of adversity.
•Emphasis on freedom of spirit in the world, even if those who possess the freedom of spirit do not believe in the Day of Judgment.
But did Imam Husayn reach his end? Did his saga end at all? The Master of Martyrs (A) has not died. He is alive in the hearts of the believers. He is alive along with those who struggle in the path of Allah.
And when Hadrat Zaynab (A) saw the headless body of her brother on the ground, she said: "0, Allah, Accept this sacrifice from us!"
The Epic of Husayn (A) & the Manifestation of Man's True Nature
Mostafa Delshad Tehrani
The epic of Husayn is the epic of liberation from captivity and striving to reclaim man's true nature. Today, more than any other time, we need the messages of Karbala and Ashura because man is in an appalling state of captivity in which he has colored everything with materialism and has extended the reign of quantity to include everything.
Karbala and Ashura are meant to liberate. Whoever stepped on the path of Karbala and accepted Ashura, he became liberated, was freed from hell and entered the heaven of freedom.
The Literature of Ashura during the Time of the Imams (A)
Mahmud Reza Eftekharzadeh
By the literature of Ashura, I mean all the Ziyarat, the prayers and Hadiths martyrdom and discussions about Ashura in general. The literature of Ashura (Ziyarat and the prayers) serve as the ideological-theological- philosophical backbone of the I2-lmamite Shi'ism throughout history. Hence paying due attention to them emerges as an urgent necessity.
The literature of Ashura is educational, propagational, guidanceoriented and humane, it aims to support the truth and tell the truth. It has distinct features such as being goal-oriented, rhythmic, universal, and sincere, with an emphasis on repetition, inwardness, and harmony.
In the literature of Ashura, Arabic is an ideological language. It is rich in subtleties and allusions and evokes an ideological-human sense.
The literature of Ashura has influenced other sects in Islam. We come across these influences in the books by lsma'iliya and even the books of the four Sunni schools.
Retrieval of the Message of Ashura in the
Contemporary Islamic Movement
Hasan Yousefi Eshkavari
"Retrieval of the message of Ashura in the present Islamic movement" shows how "the spirit", "the message", "the role" and "function" of a sad event that occurred in Muharram 61 H. is being revived. We would like to evaluate the mechanism through which the desire for martyrdom and for creating an epic, which emerged in the past one hundred years in the recent Islamic renaissance, has led to great transformations in the thinking and action of the Muslims, especially among the Shi'ahs.
After the death of Uthman two intellectual as well as political camps emerged within the Islamic Ummah.
•"The camp of Alawi Islam",
•"The camp of Non-Alawi Islam" or Shi'ahs of Uthman,
The Alawi Islam was blessed with political, ideological and intellectual consistency whereas the other camp included an incongruous, and vast, spectrum of people.
The Alawi Islam in its struggle reached Karbala where Imam Husayn (A) strove towards such aims as revival of the religion and the authentic Islamic values, purifying the religion from extraneous points, rejection of injustice and discrimination, and revival of Islamic justice, moral courage and piety.
His struggles caused the wall of silence, which had stood for half a century, to crumble, and gave rise to massive uprisings against the dark rule of the House of Umayyads.
In the past centuries, the message of Ashura [a message which included the aims of the uprising of Ashura] was forgotten and in some cases it was changed and distorted. But the process of Shi'ah thought and culture underwent a total transformation in the fourteenth century. It seems that the confrontation with the West and the Western civilization and modernity led to this change. The confrontation heightened the sense of inferiority, which Muslims would feel in relation to the West. It was then that the idea of "returning to Holy Our'an and Islam," or in a more general sense "return to oneself', appeared on the scene. This led to the realization, analysis and a rediscovery of the message of Ashura, thereby blowing the spirit of life in the lifeless body of the contemporary period.
The religious, social and intellectual changes that occurred in the latter part of the thirteenth century and the beginning of the fourteenth century, brought about new approaches to, and critical analyses of, the events in Karbala. The religious literature of Iran underwent a major change. New thoughts and political as well as revolutionary ideals entered the religious literature and religious discourse. The event of Ashura was once again analyzed. In the last stages of the retrieval of the message of Ashura before the revolution, in the years preceding the revolution, due to the interpretations by Dr. Ali Shari'ati, Shi'ah revolutionary culture became much more aggressive.
Finally, all these changes leading to the Islamic Revolution of Iran and the distinguished role of Imam Khomeini (R) in the development of the thought and culture of Ashura, brought about the success of the revolution.
