The Revival Tradition: The Methods of Guarding the Epic of Ashura & Its Culture in the History of Islamic Culture
Jawad Muhaddithi
The Movement of Ashura aimed at reviving religion and fighting against the sovereignty of the falsehood. After Ashura, the enemies and the oppressive rules tried to push this movement to the margins and destroy its memory. The teachings of Ahl-al-Bayt (A), however, were directed at keeping the memory of Ashura alive. These teachings, and the concomitant function of the Shi'ahs, in safeguarding and reviving the memory of the creator of that epic, made sure that the flame of Ashura would never die out, These functions took on such forms and expressions as praising and eulogising, mourning, group mournings, lamentations, Hosseiniyahs and Tekiyahs, writing accounts of the martyrdom, sermons and addresses, passion plays, recounting the sufferings of Husayn (A) (Rowzeh-Khani), pilgrimage, revering the soil of the land (Torbat) where Imam was martyred and honoring Euphrates.
In the above cases, the paper deals with the two dimensions of history and Hadith. Wherever possible, I have used the words of the man who revived the culture of Ashura in our era, the late Imam Khomeini (R.). I have also mentioned ways to preserve and continue the epic of Karbala in the form of religious rites and programs. I hope that we will be successful in safeguarding the epic of Ashura and its Karbalaesque culture.
The Culture of Ashura in a Secular World
Majeed Muhammadi
The culture of Ashura is a living and effective issue capable of being studied in the present world. However, that which has been discussed in recent years in relation to Ashura is mainly of an ideological and political relevance and that which has been discussed is the struggle against oppression and negation of illegitimate rule. But Ashura can be relevant to today's secular world and this relation and relevance is a bridge between this episode and modern man. In the same way that Ashura is a reality, the secular character of the world today is also a fact.
Communications have become worldwide in today's world. On this basis the discussion of Ashura in the framework of a global culture can be an extrovertive exercise for the closed Shi'ite culture. Shi'ite culture cannot confine itself any more to its geographical limits and think within the framework of Iranian culture.
On the other hand three basic elements in the contemporary world culture consist of: knowledge, individuality, and freedom. These three elements which have become ideals have manifested themselves in history in the shape of three great legendary figures: Socrates, Christ, and Husain. We encounter three forms of tragedies in these three men which represent a sublime tragedy and a great death. A comparison between these three myths can disclose many concepts latent in human life.
The eternal tragedy of Socrates arises from man's knowledge of his own ignorance. The eternal tragedy of Christ is the love of God. But the tragedy of Imam Husain is defense of human freedom. This characteristic gives an aggressive role to the Shi'ah and gives the Shi'ah the mental capacity to perform the duty of bidding that which is good and forbidding evil.
To the Shi'ah, Imam Husain (A) is the embodiment of salvation:
The secret of this salvation lies in the tragedy borne by the Imam and his companions. That which is yielded by this tragedy borne with the goal of freedom can be called salvation. If we can consider any role for religious men and leaders in the secular world of today, it is this role of salvation, which cannot be attained by obtaining political power, or administering society or by compelling people to observe the precepts of religion.
The Social and Ideological Backgrounds of the Uprising of Imam Husayn (A)
Jamal Musavi
With the emergence of Islam, the ideological and social system of the Arabs of Jahiliyyah era, which was based on polytheism, idol worship and ethnic or tribal chauvinism, crumbled and was replaced by a new system based on the Revelation and man's reason. Quraysh, which had settled in Mecca 200 years prior to the emergence of Islam, was in effect the heir to a period of Jahiliyyah which had lasted for some millennia.
What really mattered for the Jahiliyyah Arabs were the kinship within the tribe and dogmatic adherence to the belief of the forefathers.
With the overt invitation to Islam in the third year of appointment of Prophet Muhammad(S) to prophethood, the aristocrats of Quraysh intensified their efforts to ensure that this religion would not grow in popularity. They chose many methods to dissuade Prophet Muhammad (S) and his companions to give up their cause. Among their methods were: torturing the new converts to Islam, accusing the Prophet of Islam (S) of being a poet and a magician, making promises and threats, economic boycott and social ostracism. The aristocrats of Quraysh did everything within their power to stop this religion because it rejected the conventional wisdom of the people back then.
The messenger of this religion was telling, on the authority of One God that, "There is no god, but the One God, who is Unique. All men are equal before the One God: Kinship and lineage do not provide grounds for nobility and superiority. There is no distinction between Arabs and non-Arabs, between black and white, except through piety."
The declaration of unity, the equality of all men, the negation of the kinship and lineage, the prohibition of usury, and breaking down of the idols, these all meant that Islam was seeking a great revolution in intellectual, cultural and social domains. Negating the validity of kinship, lineage and the idols in a tribal society, in which polytheism serves as one of its pillars, indeed meant the death of that system and by extension the death of all the people who were the supporters of that system.
At the dawn of Islam, the tribe of Bani Umayyads, one of the two famous lines of Abd-e Manaf and the arch rival of Bani Hashim, was the epitome of all the JahiIiyyah traits.
We said that the rivalry over kinship and lineage was among the traits of pre-Islamic Arabs. Bani Umayyads were even much more passionate than all others with regard to lineage and kinship. The roots of this rivalry, which later led to open hostility, can be traced back to the conflict between Hashim and Umayyads which ended in the latter's ten-year-long exile to Syria. The intransigent opposition of Abu Sofyan Ibn-e Harb Ibn-e Umayyads to the prophethood of Prophet Muhammad (s) and then the opposition of sly Mu'awiyah to Ali (A) and Imam Hasan (A) were in line with the opposition of the House of Umayyads to the House of Hashim. Later this opposition prompted Mu'awivah's son to condider Islam and its teachings as a plaything.
Indeed the House of Umayyads, under the leadership of Ahu Sufyan and his followers, who were actually representatives of the Jahiliyyah system, were adamantly opposed to the clear and auspicious teachings of Islam because:
1.Whatever change that occurred in the social and cultural structure of Hijaz, especially in Mecca, would make it impossible for Abu Sufyan and other aristocrats in Quraysh to reign supreme in socio-economic circles.
2.They believed that by allowing Prophet Muhammad to succeed in his mission, they would allow the House of Hashim to claim a prophet among their ranks, where as the House of Umayyads had none. Hence, the House of Umayyads did their best to stop the growth of Islam. After 20 years of open hosility, they finally converted to Islam. This was of course a strategic retreat since they were waiting for an opportunity to re-establish their former Jahiliyyah sovereignty.
The first three Caliphs ruled for a total of 25 years. The third Caliph, Uthman lbn-e Affan, was himself from the Umayyads tribe. He provided the opportunity for Umayyads to push Islamic teachings aside and replace them with the teachings of the Jahiliyyah era.
It can be said with certainty that it was only Ali (A) and a small group of his true Shi'ahs that were loyal to the principles of Islam and confronted the representatives of Jahiliyyah.
As the Holy Qur'an had said the majority of the people would revert to their Jahiliyyah ways and would only pay lip service to Islam.
It appeared that only Ali (A) and some others were tormented by this reaction. Hijaz pulled itself to a corner and did not play a major role in politics. Iraq and Syria were considered as the two contenders. Finally, ali (A) was left alone among his political Shi'ahs (not his ideological Shi'ahs).
When the time for Husayn's leadership emerges, he realizes he has to finish the unfinished project of his father and brother.
Now, polytheism (Shirk) is hiding under the banner of Tawhid (monotheism) and the pre-Islamic system has appeared once again under the new guise of Islamic Caliphate and the successors of the prophet. Who is there now, from the prophet's progeny, except Husayn, who can call out in this new Jahiliyyah that:
'Say there is no God, but Allah and gain your salvation!"
The Jahiliyyah Party (the House of Umayyads) is now sitting on the throne. But it aims to push Islam out of the scene, or to turn it hollow from the inside. It was no wonder that Yazid wanted Husayn (A) to enter into a covenant with him, without setting any conditions.
If Husayn (A) had signed a covenant with Yazid, the House of Umayyads would achieve their Jahiliyyah dream: subjugating Bani Hashim. Then they could freely replace Islamic teachings with those of the Jahiliyyah.
Imam Husayn (A), cognizant of his great duty as Imam, refused to do so. He rose in order to revive Islam and correct the innovations (Bid'ah). He and 72 of his companions sacrificed their lives for the sake of Islam.
Even though the socio-political conditions of that time (such as: the scarcity of true believers, revival of pre-Islamic values, lack of political participation by people in Hijaz, rivalry and ethnic and tribal factionalism among Iraqis and the Syrians, and the betrayal and docility of the people of Iraq) did not allow Imam Husayn to achieve material victory, but he achived true victory by leaving behind a legacy of "supporting the religion", "freedom of spirit" and "commitment to Islamic principles and values" for the generations to come. One such fruit is the Ashuraesque uprising of Imam Khomeini (R).
The role of Ashura & Its Culture in Psychic Well-being
Sayyid Ghafoor Musavi
The uprising of Sayyid al-Shuhada(A) and his esteemed companions was not simply an armed revolt: rather it had varied aspects and many positive characteristics, each of which requires to be dealt with great acumen.
Among the less discussed issues pertaining to the events of Ashura and its commemorators is the constructive role of Ashura in the spheres of ethical training and psychic development. This peculiarity is reflected throughout by the character of Imam Husain (A) and his noble companions, as well as by the reminiscences left behind by other martyrs (including the martyrs of the Imposed War).
In this discussion an effort is made to arrive at a comprehensive conclusion concerning the role of Ashura and the culture it has ushered in promoting psychic well-being, and the psychic consequences of distancing from this culture.
The headings of the positive psychic influences are:
1.Appropriate striving
2.Peace of mind
3.Becoming immune to depression and anxiety
4.Increase in self-esteem
5.Becoming active in building the future
6.Ease in confronting irritating situations
7.Acquiring a unified personality
8.Avoiding psychic hideouts
9.Acquiring qualities responsible for psychic development
The headings of the psychic problems arising as a result of distancing oneself from the culture of Ashura are:
1. Getting stuck in a materialistic mould of life.
2. Weakness in confronting difficulties
3.Busying oneself in unimporatnt activities
4.Becoming a toy in the hands of others
5.Living life without love.
A Jurisprudential Approach to the Ashura Uprising
Sayyid Reza Musavi
Say: I do admonish you on one point that ye stand up before Allah, (it may be) in pairs, or (it may be) singly, and then ponder.... –Holy Qur'an. Chapter Saba, Verse 46
In this paper, I have tried to respond to those pseudo-intellectuals and the seemingly-pious whose pronouncements on this divine movement, this sacred movement of Imam Husayn (A), necessitate prompt rebuttal which should he formulated from the standpoint of Shi'ah jurisprudents, especially the late Imam Khomeini (R.). I will provide the answers on the basis of belief in the infallibility of the Ahl-al-Bayt (A) and in their words and conducts as the source for reasoning. I will provide the answers in two sections:
A: Declaration of conformity to the precepts of religion, the rejection of signing a covenant with Yazid and the opposition to his regime, the last will and testament of Imam Husayn (A) and the appointment of Muhammad Hanafiyyah as the deputy, journey to Mecca, taking the women and children along, changing the Hajj to a minor Hajj, lack of secrecy (Taqiyyah) and rejection of compromise, camping in Karbala, buying lands in Ninavah enjoining the good and prohibiting the evil, asking for respite from the enemies, giving permission to friends (some opted for leaving), giving sermons and delivering addresses in the battlefield, holding prayer of khawf (fear) at noon on Ashura fighting an armed fight until martyrdom in the path of God.
B: Includes discussions on the permission to bury the martyrs washing their bodies or wrapping them in the shrouds, the speeches given by the women in Kufa and Damascus, visiting the graves of the martyrs, lamentations over the sufferings of Imam Husayn (A), cursing the murderers, prostrating on the Torbat of Master of the Martyrs eating the Torbat as a remedy, putting Imam Husayn's Torbat next to the shroud (of the corpse to be buried).
A Comparison of Imam Husain's (A)
Uprising With the Standards of Islam Law
Salehi Najafabadi
The summary of the article is as follows:
1.There exists a great diversity of views between scholars concerning the uprising of Imam Husain (A). There are altogether seven different opinions about it, and this is a cause of surprise for any researcher.
2.In the original historical sources, which include the sermons and letters of Imam Husain relating to this uprising, there exists no disparity, and this divergence of opinions is due to some traditions which have been the cause of difficulties in this regard, and had these traditions not existed, there would have been no difference of opinions concerning this issue.
3.The opinions about Imam Husain's (A) uprising arc as follows:
i) The first view is that Imam (A), in the second stage of his uprising, planned for the sake of reviving Islam and overthrowing the tyrannical regime, to establish an Islamic government with the help of the people of Kufa. Imam Khomeini also holds this views (Sahifa-e-Nur, vol. 1, p. 174).
ii) The second view is that Imam Husain (A) acted with the intention of being martyred, and that there was a Divine secret command that the Imam (A) must present himself for martyrdom.
iii) The third opinion is that the Imam (A) intended to form an Islamic government at the time of leaving Mecca, but after receiving the news of Muslim ibn Aqil's martyrdom, he decided to sacrifice himself and his companions.
iv) The fourth view is that Imam (A) invited the people to rise in arms against the rule of Yazid and to topple his government; but he himself did not want to form a government and to take the reigns of Khilafat in his hand because even in the event of his capturing power he would not be able to revive Islam or even prohibit the practice of cursing his father Ali (A).
v) The fifth view is that basically Imam Husain (A) did not rise in revolt and had no intention of jihad, and his journey from Madinah to Mecca and from Mecca towards Iraq was solely with an intention of saving his life.
vi) The sixth opinion is that Imam (A) moved towards Kufa for establishing a government, but he knew that he would be martyred during this journey and would not be able to form a government.
vii) The seventh view is that Imam (A), Pretended that he wanted to form a government in Kufa, while in fact he embarked with the intention of being martyred.
4.The first two views which have a long history are considered the two primary views of this issue, while the other opinions were born later on and are classified as secondary.
5.The first view which says that, Imam (A) intended to form a government for the sake of reviving Islam, is substantiated by the sermons and letters of Imam Husayn (A) himself. This is the strongest testimony and is in concurrence with the original sources of this event. This view is the only correct and acceptable opinion and happens to be the opinion of Imam Khomeini as well.
6.The basis of the second view which says: Imam (A) undertook the journey with the intention of being martyred, are certain traditions, which in our opinion are the fabrications of ghali (extremist) liars and hence rejectionable.
7.For the other five views no worthwhile proof has been provided and the holders of the opinions have, at times, relied upon conjecture and imagination.
8.The movement of Imam Husain (A), in all the four stages, was undertaken in accordance with the standards of Islamic law (fiqh) and the practice of rational people, and it took shape on the basis of proper planning, advice, and the selection of the best option. Imam Husain (A) who was the greatest faqih and Islamic scholar of his time, planned and executed his movement in accordance with the standards of fiqh, and in doing so he did not require a secret Divine command.
9.The spirit of Imam's movement and its real axis was to unitiate the performance of good acts to reject evil deeds in practice, by, at times, stopping others from doing evil, at other times, for the sake of destroying evil already present; at times for stopping the performance of an evil deed which they wanted to force upon a person, and at still other times, for deprecating and denouncing evil. All these four forms of rejecting evil have been practiced by Imam Husain (A).
10.The movement of Imam Husain (A) in all its stages is an example and a guide for the freedom fighters and reformers of all times till the Day of Judgment.
11.From the time when Imam Khomeini proclaimed in 1350 (H.S.) in Najaf that: Imam Husain (A) sent Muslim ibn Aqil so that he may invite the people for taking the oath of allegiance (bay'at) so that he may form an Islamic government and destroy the corrupt regime (Sahifa-e Nur, vol. 1, p. 174), this true speech of Imam Khomeini carved a niche for itself in the hearts of the faithful revolutionary people. Day by day their numbers grew and they became more and more powerful till when, in 1357 (H.S.), by taking inspiration from the uprising of Imam Husain and with the power of the people under the leadership of the Late Imam Khomeini and the Husain of his time, they caused the Islamic Revolution of Iran, which is the actual interpretation of the Husayni uprising, and toppled the Shah and replaced the dictatorial monarchy with the sacred system of the Islamic republic. In doing so they presented a new face of Islam to the world and rescued the Qur'an from being abandoned and forsaken.
A Review of Historiography of Ashura in Shi'ism
Ahmad Naraqi
Undoubtedly in the history of Shi'ah culture, uprising of Imam Husayn (A) is considered among the most important events. Therefore, it is imperative that one would review and analyze some of the special features of the method of historiography of Ashura as well as its historical development in the Shi'ah culture.
The traditional historiography of Ashura (be it among the Sunnis or the Shi'ahs) has always been based on writing accounts of events, which was done in non-analytical and non-critical manner mixed with a degree of emotionality. This type of historiography usually degenerates into exercises in writing mythology and reporting of exaggerations. But the most important feature of this type of historiography, is the intervention of supernatural forces and occurrence of the miraculous and the extraordinary.
Essentially, with regard to historiography of religious events in general and historiography of the events of Ashura in particular, the world of Shi'ism, much later than the world of Sunnism, began to undergo a change. The book, Shahid-e Javid (Immortal Martyr) by Ne'matollah Salehi Najafabadi heralds the beginning of this new era in contemporary Shi'ah thought.
This new period has only a few books to its credit. These writings vary in terms of quality. They have special features such as revival of the revolutionary-Political approach to the events of Karbala which provide us with an analytical or critical evaluation of the events. More importantly, these works stress the "natural' and "humane" aspects of the events in the history of religion.
In the historiography of Ashura, the circles of the sources and research documentation are expanded to include non-Shi'ah sources such as the Sunni sources.
The common feature of the old historiography and the new one is in that they are both within the category of "theological historiography". In other words, this body of writing is written based on unchangeable premises. It is written under the influence of religious beliefs of the historiographers and utimately serve their theological aims.
In the end, one must heed the fact that the method of scientific historiography is based on two methodological premises. First, the historical events should be analyzed with regard to their "natural" and "humane" aspects. Second, the preconditions for a scientific endeavor are "objectivity" and "disinterestedness".
Even though the science of history is independent from the science of theology, but it is among its most rudimentary and basic pillars. In effect, the expansion and development of Shi'ah theology is to a great extent dependent on the development of Shi'ah theology is to a great extent dependent on the growth and evolution of scientific historiography of the religious events.
The Culture of Ashura in the Life & Pronouncements of the Infallible Ahl al-Bayt (A)
Ali Nazari Munfarid
The Noble Prophet (S) observed: "By the martyrdom of Husain (A) there is a heat in the hearts of the faithful which will never cool off". This holy revolution has throughout history embarked upon the task of educating and nurturing peoples. The incident of Karbala became a turning point in the history of Islam and led to numerous bloody uprisings and movements which were all inspired by the movement of Imam Husain (A).
Ashura is an amazing event concerning which some, emphasize the martyrdom of Imam Husain's (A) companions in the battlefield from a point of view, while others empasize their fortitude and patience.
The belief and the lofty faith of Imam Husain's (A) companions who remained calm and totally composed in the most sanguine situations is another facet to which attention has been paid.
But why should we refer to the practice of the Ahl al-Bayt and search for the culture of Ashura in their biographical accounts? This is because of the connection between the Thaqalayn (the Qur'an and the Ahl al-Bayt) on the one hand, and on the other, due to the fact that a single flow of events dominates the lives of all the Ahl al-Bayt (A). Examples of the incidence of Karbala have occurred in the lives of all the Imams (A) in varying forms and in consonance with their times and the situations they were placed in.
The Ahl al-Bayt (A) gave extraordinary importance to historically safeguarding and protecting the Ashura and keeping alive its memories through commemorating it by continually organizing gatherings for reciting elegies and narrating the injustice perpetrated on the Ahl al-Bayt (A).
The painful and sanguine incidence of Ashura had certain consequences. Among them was the disgrace the enemy had to face and the permanent historical victory of Imam Husain's (A) ideology. When Imam Sajjad (A) returned to Madinah, one of his friends asked him: Who achieved victory? The Imam (A) replied:
When it is time for prayer, recite the adhan and iqarnah, and then you will recognize who achieved victory.
