With the departure of Abu Musa Ashari from Kufa, a pro-Ali government was set up in Kufa. The new Government proclaimed their full support to Ali. The new Governor addressed the people of Kufa in the mosque, and exhorted them to enroll themselves in the ranks of Ali and strengthen his hands to enable him fight for the truth. Imam Hasan also addressed the people. He said: "Ali has sent me to you with his message of goodwill for you. Of all the people in the commonwealth he has the greatest regard for you. He intends to make Kufa the capital of the Muslim Empire. This is a great honor, but Kufa deserves it. You are the people who can distinguish truth from falsehood. The way in which you have risen in the cause of Ali is a positive proof of your love for the truth. Your Caliph needs your assistance. It is both in your interest and duty incumbent on you to help him. Can you give any reason for refusing his help? Is there any one who can reasonably accuse him of having shown any covetous inclinations, or withholding or perverting justice? Can any one amongst you say that he thrust himself into the Caliphate or that he proved himself unworthy of this dignity in any way? Beware of those rebels who pretend to have taken up arms to avenge the murder of Othman. O ye people of Kufa, the avenging of the murder of Othman is merely a pretext to dethrone the Caliph Ali. Ali was elected as the Caliph unanimously by the people of Madina. Talha and Zubair who now lead the rebels took the oath of allegiance to him. Indeed they were the first to support him. Now they are the first to forswear him. Therefore O ye the people of Kufa, it is incumbent on you to come and do what is good and forbid what is evil. Islam expects you to do your duty, and your duty lies in supporting your Caliph."
The magnetic personality of Imam Hasan, and his inspiring address won the hearts of the people of Kufa, and they declared that they would stand by their Caliph through thick and thin. The people began to flock to the standard of Imam Hasan in large numbers, and enrolled themselves as volunteers. Within a week, a force ten thousand strong was raised from Kufa to support Ali.
Welcome to the men from Kufa
When Ali came to know that his mission in Kufa had succeeded, and a force of ten thousand men from Kufa was coming to swell his ranks, he felt very happy. He proceeded one stage from ar-Rabd to welcome the men from Kufa. When he met the men from Kufa, he welcomed them enthusiastically. Addressing them he said: "Brave warriors of Kufa! You were always distinguished for your prowess and bravery. It was you who overran Persia. Your highly developed sense of love for religion and justice has always led you to help the weaker against the stronger and the right against the wrong. Unfortunately some of our brethren have chosen to follow the wrong way and sown discord among the community. I have sought your help in restoring unity among the Muslims. Those who have separated from us have no cause. They are misguided and I want them to see the light of reason. I have no intention of leading you to any sanguinary battle. You are to be the volunteers of peace, and we have to proceed to Basra on a mission of peace. I am sure your presence in such a large number will tilt the scale in favor of the right. The services of the people in the cause of peace would not be forgotten, and after the problem of Basra has been tackled, I will shift the capital from Madina to Kufa. That would greatly add to the importance of Kufa, and to the prosperity of its people." In reply to the address of Ali, some leaders of the people of Kufa paid tribute to the greatness of Ali. They said that in view of his relationship with the Holy Prophet, his learning, his piety, and his meritorious record of service in the cause of Islam, he was the most suitable person among the Muslims to be their Caliph. They accordingly offered him their support without any reservation. They assured him that they would stand by him in thick and thin, and in peace and war.
The army of Ali
The ten thousand strong army from Kufa added materially to the strength of Ali. The force from Kufa included some veteran warriors who had distinguished themselves in the wars against Persia during the caliphate of Abu Bakr and Umar.
When the Bedouin tribes who had heretofore followed the policy of sitting on the fence saw that the people of Kufa had joined Ali in large numbers, they also decided to cast in their lot with Ali, and offered to serve in the ranks under him. When Ali had left Madina he had hardly nine hundred men at his disposal. The strength of the army with him had now risen to twenty thousand. This considerably strengthened his position, and he could confidently undertake the campaign to Basra in the raising of the army, there was, however, one point which could be a cause of embarrassment. Most of the Bedouins and the people of Kufa who had volunteered to join him were the men who had taken part in the rebellion against Othman. Indeed they were the people who were the most ardent supporters of Ali. At this juncture when Ali stood in great need of allies he could not afford to alienate the men who had volunteered to support his cause. As Ali pondered over this aspect of the matter he felt that the people who had rebelled against him after taking the oath of allegiance to him were responsible for this awkward state of affairs. If such men had cooperated with him after consolidating his rule he could have taken some punitive action against the persons who had participated in the rebellion against Othman. If the rebels were sincere in their demand for the vengeance of the blood of Othman, it was incumbent on them to have strengthened his hands. By rebelling against him they had frustrated the object which they intended to achieve. The truth of the matter was that the cry of vengeance for the blood of Othman was a mere pretext, their real purpose was to capture power. Ali was never keen to be elected as the Caliph, but now that he had been elected as the Caliph, he had to see that the sacred Office of the Caliph should not become a plaything for adventurers.
Another point that worried Ali was that as the caliph it was incumbent on him that he should avoid any blood-shedding among the Muslims. He accordingly resolved that though he would take a large army to Basra, he would avoid war, end the sheer strength of his army would act as a brake against any rash action on the part of his opponents. After weighing such pros and cons of the case, Ali broke the camp at ar-Rabda, and took the road to Basra at the head of a large army twenty thousand strong.
Camp at Dhulkan
When Ali and his troops halted at Dhulkan midway between ar-Rabda and Basra, they were joined by Othman b Hanif, the Alid Governor of Basra. The Governor had been taken captive by the rebels and lodged in the prison. Later he was released under the orders of Ayesha. Othman b Hanif was in a sorry state when he confronted Ali, half dead from the treatment that he had received at the hands of the rebels. He said, O Commander of the Faithful, you sent me to Basra with a beard, but now I return to you disgraced having none. Ali consoled him and said that his services in the cause of Islam would be recognized, and he would be compensated for the privations that he had suffered. Ali humorously remarked that he was old when he had sent him to Basra, but he had returned to him looking younger. Othman b Hanif joined the retinue, and accompanied Ali to Basra.
On the way to Basra
On the way to Basra at one of the halts, a "Kahin" met Ali. The "Kahin" said that he saw blood flowing profusely on all sides. Ali cursed him for his evil pronogstigation.
The tribes of Rabiah and Abdul Qais had originally joined the troops of Ayesha but later they withdrew their support from her and marched out of Basra to join the forces of Ali. Ali welcomed them and praised them for their ability to discern the truth.
As the troops of Ali moved forward, news were received that Basra had been occupied by the confederates, and that all the people of Basra who were suspected of having participated in the murder of Othman had been executed. Thereupon Ali is reported to have said: "Now that they have taken the Qasas, and killed the people whom they considered guilty of the murder of Othman, what more do they want in Basra? O God, rid me of Talha and Zubair."
Camp at Basra
On reaching Basra, the troops of Ali camped outside the city. It was a large army, and the camp was spread over several miles. The pro-Alid people of Basra who had evacuated the city on its cooperation by the confederates also joined the camp. Some other tribes in the neighborhood of Basra also joined the camp. Ali instructed his men to remain at peace. According to his instructions war was not to be resorted to, until all possibilities of peace had been exhausted.
Ali's quest for peace
Although Ali had led an army to Basra, he was averse to any armed conflict between the Muslims. He felt that those who had rebelled against his authority labored under some misunderstanding. It was his endeavor that such misunderstanding should be removed and unity should be restored among the Muslims. When his army Generals asked his instructions about beginning the war operations, he commanded that war was not to be resorted to until all possibilities of an equitable settlement through peaceful means had been exhausted. He ordered that even on the failure of the peace parleys, the first shot was not to be fired from his side. "Let the other side take the initiative in the war, if they are not inclined to listen to the voice of reason" he said.
Ali's mission to Ayesha
In his quest for peace, Ali sent a peace mission to Ayesha. The peace mission was headed by Qa'aqa, a prominent leader from Kufa. He was a renowned warrior, and was well known for his heroic exploits in the wars against the Persians during the caliphates of Abu Bakr and Umar. The mission was instructed by Ali not to adopt a threatening or a patronizing attitude. No attempt was to be made to over awe the other side with the superior strength of the force at the disposal of the Caliphate. Ali desired that the negotiations between the parties should be a heart to heart dialogue, and every possible effort should be made to remove the misunderstandings between the parties. Ali instructed the members of the mission that due respect should be shown to Ayesha, the Mother of the Faithful. He sent a message of goodwill and great regards to Ayesha saying that in spite of the unfortunate misunderstandings that had cropped up between them he looked to her as a mother, and expected a motherly treatment from her.
The issues
The mission was received by Ayesha, Talha and Zubair with due courtesy. The message of Ali was duly delivered, and Ayesha said that she would be glad if the misunderstandings were removed and unity among the Muslims was restored. Qa'aqa inquired of Ayesha as to what were the objects before her which had prompted her to take to the field. She said that the objects before her were to seek vengeance for the blood of Othman, and to promote the cause of Islam.
Vengeance for the blood of Othman
With regard to the issue about the vengeance for the blood of Othman, Qa'aqa posed the question, "Mother, tell me, keeping God in view, whether you accuse Ali for the murder of Othman as a criminal or as an accomplice?" Ayesha said that she did not accuse Ali for involvement in the assassination of Othman; her grievance was that as Caliph, Ali had not taken any action to apprehend the murderers of Othman. Qa'aqa then asked whether such murder was the act of one man, or was it the act of a mob. Ayesha said that obviously it was the act of a mob. Qa'aqa next asked the question, "Have things settled down after the murder of Othman". Ayesha said that the things were still very much in a state of disarray. Qa'aqa thereupon said, "If things are still unsettled, how could Ali take action against the people who were still in control of the situation, and from whom another coup could be expected?" To this question, Ayesha, Talha or Zubair had no satisfactory answer.
Qa'aqa then posed another question, "Do you know that by rebelling against the authority of Ali you have done great harm to the cause for the vengeance of the blood of Othman?" "How was that?" asked Ayesha. Qa'aqa said, "By rebelling against the authority of Ali, you have forced Ali to deal with you instead of dealing with the murderers of Othman. In this crisis, Ali had naturally to seek allies, and when you have forsaken Ali those who had rebelled against Othman have come to the aid of Ali in large numbers, because they feel that the troubles of Ali are because of them. Things have thus moved in a vicious circle, and by rebelling against Ali you have thrown him in the lap of the persons from whom you seek vengeance. By your action you have strengthened the murderers of Othman, and weakened the Muslims." That set Ayesha thinking, and she could not know how the argument advanced by Qa'aqa could be met.
Promoting the cause of Islam
Qa'aqa then took up the question of promoting the cause of Islam. He pointed out that when the Muslims were united under Abu Bakr and Umar they made large conquests both in the east and the west. In the early years of the caliphate of Othman the process of conquests continued. When the Muslims rebelled against the authority of Othman, and came to be divided among themselves the process of conquest came to a grinding halt. He observed that the enemies of Islam were on the borders of the Muslim State ready to take advantage of any division in the ranks of the Muslims. Qa'aqa posed the question, "How can you promote the cause of Islam, if you seek to divide the Muslims for one cause or the other?" Addressing the confederates he asked, "Did you promote the cause of Islam when you killed six hundred men of Basra, and the mosque was dyed with blood? Did you thereby avenge the murder of Othman when such persons were not even remotely connected with the murder of Othman? If you killed them because rightly or wrongly you suspected them of being involved in the assassination of Othman, then is your demand for the 'Qasas' for the blood of Othman not yet satisfied?" Then he respectfully addressed Ayesha saying: "O Mother of the Faithful! Did God not enjoin you to sit quietly in your home? Did the Holy Prophet warn you that the dogs of Hu'ab would bark on you? Then how did you promote the cause of Islam by violating these instructions?" Addressing Talha and Zubair he said "Did you not take the oath of allegiance to Ali? If you took the oath of allegiance to Ali under some compulsion, tell us the man for whom you would have voted if you were free. Is any man more qualified, and more worthy to be the Caliph of the Muslims than Ali? Verily Ali is the best man to be the Caliph of the Muslims, and by putting difficulties in his way you do not promote the cause of Islam, you do great harm to Islam."
Reaction of Ayesha
The arguments advanced by Qa'aqa had their way. They were most effective and impressive Ayesha asked Qa'aqa, "Then, what do you suggest ?" He said, "I suggest that instead of fighting make peace. Strengthen the hands of Ali, and when law and order is fully established the Muslims acting in concert should determine how the vengeance for the blood of Othman could be taken. " Thereupon Ayesha said, "If that be the view of Ali as well, we agree to make peace on honorable terms. " Qa'aqa respectfully took leave of Ayesha, and returned to Ali to report the success of his mission.
Negotiations for peace
When Ali came to know of the success of the Mission of his emissary Qa'aqa to Ayesha, Talha and Zubair, he felt very happy. The two armies encamped in the "Wadi-us-Saba" (Valley of the Lion) near the village of Khuraiba outside Basra, facing each other. It was decided that the following day when the two armies assembled in the valley, the terms of peace would be negotiated, and the proclamation of peace would be issued.
The following day as the two forces assembled, Ali posted a man in the center carrying a copy of the Holy Quran on his head. This was indicative of the desire on the part of Ali to decide the dispute peacefully in the light of the teachings of the Holy Quran.
Ali rode to the center of the valley, and called upon Talha and Zubair to step forward to meet him. When Talha and Zubair came forward he asked them why they had rebelled against his authority when they had taken the oath of allegiance to him. They said that they had taken the oath under duress and it was not binding. He asked them, after all, what did they want. They said that they wanted "Qasas" for the assassination of Othman. Ali said that this matter could be considered under conditions of peace. Talha and Zubair said that if Ali was prepared to take "Qasas" from the murderers of Othman, they were prepared to make peace and acknowledge Ali as the Caliph. Ali said that he would consider their demand favorably.
Turning to Zubair, Ali said: "Have you forgotten that you are my cousin, being a son of my paternal aunt? Can you not recall that at one of our sittings with the Holy Prophet, he commended me to you? The Holy Prophet at that time predicted that I was to suffer harm at your hands, and you undertook to safeguard my interests and not to forsake me," At these words, Zabair shuddered and said "All of you have spoken the truth. I had forgotten the interview with the Holy Prophet. Now that you have reminded me of that, I will not harm your interests and would be prepared to make peace with you."
The meeting ended in an atmosphere of goodwill from both the sides. Thereafter the two armies retired to their camps, and the general impression was that peace would be made, and war would be avoided. Emissaries were exchanged between the two sides, and by the evening the general impression was that the terms of peace had been mutually agreed upon, and that the necessary peace treaty would be executed the following day.
The Regicides
The armies on the two sides heaved a sigh of relief on coming to know that peace was to be made the following day. At nightfall the men of the two armies retired to rest with easy hearts. The case with the regicides, the persons who had participated in the assassination of Othman was however different. In the army of Ali there were two to three thousand men of Kufa, who were involved in the revolt against Othman. When the confederates had occupied Basra they had executed all such men of Basra who were involved in the assassination of Othman as "Qasas" for the blood of Othman. The regicides of Kufa apprehended that in case peace was made between Ali and the confederates the terms of the agreement of peace were likely to be that the confederates would acknowledge the caliphate of Ali, and Ali would in turn order the execution of the regicides of Kufa like the execution of the regicides belonging to Basra. The leaders of the regicides of Kufa met in conference secretly to decide what course of action they should take to save their skins. It was proposed that Ali, Talha and Zubair should be killed. This proposal was turned down on the ground that such action on their part was likely to reunite the confederates and the followers of Ali, and they would together fight not only for the "Qasas" of Othman, but for the "Qasas" of Ali, Talha and Zubair as well. Many other proposals were considered. It was ultimately decided that they should take steps to insure that the two sides were locked in battle before the peace agreement was executed. In pursuance of this plan before the daybreak the regicides attacked the army of the confederates. When this attack came to the notice of Talha and Zubair they ordered their forces to meet the attack. They said that they knew before hand that Ali did not really mean to execute an agreement of peace. When the army of the confederates made a counter attack the regicides made Ali believe that the confederates had made a surprise attack. Ali asked his forces to take up arms and beat back the attack. Ali said that he already knew that Talha and Zubair were not serious in their peace proposals.
The Battle
Before it was day break the two armies had taken the field and engaged in a life and death struggle. The regicides fought most desperately, and their attacks were resisted by the confederates. The battle accordingly took a sanguinary turn. It was a deplorable engagement, when the Muslims cut the throats of Muslims. It appeared that the injunctions of Islam had been forgotten, and the people reverted to the pre-Islamic practice of settling their disputes through the arbitration of the sword. According to chronicles when the opposing sides came together breast to breast with a furious shock the noise that was produced was like the sound of thunder. The forces of the two sides fought with the ferocity of lions and men fell on the battlefield from both the sides like the fall of autumn leaves. Talha fought bravely, and he killed many warriors of the army of Ali. He was however mortally wounded by the arrows that hit him. He was carried in an unconscious state to a house in Basra where he soon expired. By noon the tide of the battle began to turn against the confederates at this stage. Zubair is also reported to have escaped from the battlefield, and taken the road to Makkah. When Ayesha came to know of the state of the battle, she came to the battle seated in a litter on a camel. She exhorted the people to stop fighting. She posted Kasb b Sur the Qazi of Basra in the center of the battlefield with a copy of the Holy Quran on his head. He exhorted the men of the army of Ali to stop fighting in the name of God. Some men of the army of Ali were inclined to listen to the call of Kaab b Sur well known for his piety and learning. The regicides who were in the forefront of the fight cried "He is the man who reported that Talha and Zubair had not taken the oath of allegiance to Ali voluntarily. Kill him." The regicides rained arrows on Kaab b Sur, and he fell dead. The confederates shot arrows in return killing some of the regicides. The frenzy of the combatants appeared to know no bounds the appalling carnage continued unabated, and the dead and the dying lay pilled in heaps. Ayesha seated in a litter on a camel became the main target for attack by the forces of Ali. The followers of Ayesha flocked round her camel to protect her. A devoted follower held the reins of the camel, and as any one from the army of Ali advanced to attack the camel, the man holding the reins of the camel cut him with his sword. In such duels many persons fell on both the sides. Over two dozen persons of the army of the confederates lost their heads while holding the bridle of the camel of Ayesha. The casualties in the case of the warriors of the army of Ali who dashed against the camel were much heavier. Ali felt that as long as the camel of Ayesha stood, the battle would continue. In order to end the battle, Ali directed his men to slip behind the camel and cut off its legs. Some warriors of the forces of Ali managed to slip behind the camel and cut off its legs. As the beast fell on the ground dead, it gave such a shriek that made the men shiver in their shoes. Ayesha escaped with her life although the litter in which she had been sitting was pierced with arrows. Ayesha was lifted out of the litter, and borne to a house is Basra.
End of the battle
With the fall of Ayesha's camel, the battle ended in the victory of Ali, and the defeat of the confederates. As in this battle, the camel of Ayesha became the main target of attack. The battle came to be known as the Battle of the Camel. The loss on both the sides was considerable. Over ten thousand persons were killed in the battle. Among the dead on both the sides, there were many prominent companions of the Holy Prophet who had fought in the wars under the Holy Prophet, and the rightly guided Caliphs, Abu Bakr, Umar, and Othman.
Talha the confederate leader died because of the wounds received in the battle; Zubair escaped from the battlefield and he took the road to Makkah. He had proceeded for some distance from Basra when he came across a detachment led by the Banu Qais chief Ahnaf b Qais. Here Zubair halted to offer prayers. When Zubair prostrated himself in prayers, one of the men of Ahnaf cut off the head of Zubair with the blow of his sword. Ahnaf brought the head of Zubair to Ali hoping to be awarded for killing his enemy. At they sight of the gory head of his cousin, Ali burst into sobs and turning to Ahnaf said, "You have done a ghastly deed, and verily your lot is hell fire, Ahnaf was surprised at the remarks of Ali. Addressing Ali he said, "You are an evil judge of men. If some one delivers you from your enemies you pronounce the penalty of hell fire on him. " Bitterly resenting what he felt to be a great injustice, Ahnaf drew his sword, and plunged it into his own breast.
Burial of the dead
When after the battle, Ali inspected the battlefield, he found it piled up with dead bodies and littered with severed limbs. The plain outside Basra was virtually soaked with blood. Among the dead on both the sides there were many faces familiar to Ali, and he was much grieved over their death. These included some eminent companions. Ali felt that if as a result of the battle, men of such eminence were to die, he would not have resorted to war. It was a deplorable sight that Muslims had cut the throats of Muslims, and at this tragedy no body could grieve more than Ali. As long as the battle waged, there was enmity between the two sides. After the battle there was no enmity between the dead. Ali arranged for the funeral prayers, and the burial of the dead from both the sides. Many vultures invaded the battlefield, and carried away the limbs. A vulture carried a limb to Madina, and it was found to be a severed hand containing a ring bearing the name of Abdur Rahman b Atab, an eminent companion. Ali did not celebrate the victory as an occasion of joy. He ordered the observance of mourning for three days in the memory of the dead. These three days were spent in the burial of the dead.
Treatment of the people of Basra
Some of the followers of Ali demanded that, having been defeated, the survivors should be distributed as slaves among the soldiers of the victorious army. Ali turned down the demand saying that as the Caliph of the Muslims he could not allow the Muslims to be enslaved by Muslims in a country which was "Dar-ul Islam". The soldiers of the army of Ali desired that if they were not to be allowed to enslave the people of Basra, they should be allowed to plunder their property. Ali turned down this demand as well with great force. He held that whatever arms and equipment had been brought to the battlefield on the occasion of the battle could be treated as 'Ghanima' (war booty) and captured, but whatever lay in the homes of the people belonged to them, and he could not permit his men to deprive the people of Basra of their rightful belongings. Whatever booty was collected from the battlefield was distributed among the soldiers according to the Islamic law, and they were asked to abstain from seizing any property of the people of Basra by force.
Occupation of Basra
After the three days of mourning were over, Ali entered the city of Basra and occupied it. He declared amnesty for the people of Basra, and asked them to assemble in the principal mosque of the city. When all the people had assembled, Ali addressed them. He said that his heart bled at the tragedy that had overtaken the people of Basra, for this they were themselves to blame. They had taken the oath of allegiance to him, but later they were misguided to repudiate such oath without cause. He observed that particular sanctity was attached to such oath, and could not be repudiated. He narrated at length the circumstances under which Othman had been killed, and how he had been elected as the Caliph. He added that Talha and Zubair were the first to offer allegiance to him, and they were the first to repudiate it. Thereafter be explained at length how the demand for the vengeance for the blood of Othman was merely a pretext for gaining some ulterior end. As regards Ayesha he said he had the greatest respect and regard for her. There were some minor points of difference between him and her but there was hardly any justification for making such petty differences the ground for an armed conflict. It was nor worthy of a lady of her rank and status to take to arms when according to the injunctions of Islam, ladies were required to sit in their homes, and the Holy Prophet himself had warned his wives in that respect. He added that those who had led the revolt labor under some misunderstanding, and they were misguided in taking to arms. Because of such misguidance, the Muslim Ummah had suffered, and at this suffering and disaster none was more grieved than he. He said, at this moment Basra lies bleeding. My heart bleeds at the tragedy that has befallen your city." He observed that he had granted amnesty to the people of Basra, and was prepared to forgive and forget the past, provided the people of Basra assured him of their loyalty. The speech of Ali had its effect. The spokesmen of the people of Basra regretted all that had happened, and assured Ali of their loyalty. Thereafter all the people of Basra offered allegiance to Ali. 'Fatehah' was offered for the souls of the dead from both the sides. Someone asked him whether he regarded the people who had opposed him and had died, as martyrs. He said that he regarded all the Muslims to whatever side they belonged and had died as martyrs, for rightly or wrongly they were of the conviction that they were fighting for cause. Ali led the prayers, and after the prayers, mercy of Allah was craved for keeping the Muslims united. Ali made the necessary arrangements for the administration of Basra. He took hold of the Baitul Mal, and compensated the people who had lost their dear ones. He made arrangements for the treatment of the wounded. It was noticed that some people of Basra who were in the forefront in opposition to Ali had escaped to seek the protection of tribes in the desert. Ali issued a proclamation that they were free to come to their homes in Basra and no action would be taken for their sins of omission or commission in the past.
Ayesha
The strain of the battle, the humiliation of her defeat, the failure of her mission, and the death of her dear ones were too much for Ayesha to bear. Although a brave woman, she took to weeping day and night and fell sick. Ali visited her frequently and tried to calm her feelings. He made arrangements that she was properly looked after and was provided all facilities. Ashtar the leader of the regicides purchased the most valuable camel in Basra and sent it to Ayesha in lieu of the camel that had been killed in the battle. Ayesha refused to accept the gift, and cursed Ashtar as the evil genius who was responsible for the troubles of the Muslim Ummah. When Ayesha recovered from her illness she expressed the desire to be sent to Madina. Ali made elaborate arrangements for her journey. A group of women from Basra accompanied her to Madina. Muhammad b Abu Bakr, a step-brother of Ayesha, was commissioned by Ali to escort her to Madina. Ali himself traveled with her caravan for one stage beyond Basra, and there saw her off, requesting her to forgive and forget, for no one could say whether they were destined to meet again or not. Ayesha reciprocated the goodwill of Ali and the two parted as friends. Back in Madina, Ayesha led a retired life and did not thereafter take part in politics. She contented herself with narrating the traditions of the Holy Prophet and in this field of scholarship, she came to be recognized as an authority.
Consequences of Ali's victory in the battle of the Camel
Ali won the Battle of the Camel. As a result of this victory, Ali's caliphate came to be acknowledged by the entire Muslim world except Syria. From the victory of Basra the victory of Damascus could have been one step but that was not to be. Basra could not become a stepping stone to further conquests. In the long run, Ali's victory over Basra proved to be rave elusive than real. The carnage in Basra had been heavy. Almost every family to whichever side they belonged lost one or more dear ones. Though the people took the oath of allegiance to Ali but they did not feel happy. General discontentment continued to smolder in the hearts of the people. In normal circumstances, Ali's victory of Basra should have strengthened his position, and overawed those who were still opposed to him. Things however did not turn that way. If peace could have been made at Basra, and Talha and Zubair had acknowledged the caliphate of Ali, the position of Ali would have been strengthened. The death of Talha and Zubair, as subsequent events showed worked to the advantage of Muawiyah. If they had been alive, Muawiyah was bound to contend against three rivals, Ali, Talha and Zubair. After the Battle of Basra he had to contend against Ali alone, and this was something in his favor. Heretofore Muawiyah had contented himself with cold war. He had abstained from taking to arms for he was afraid that such rebellion against established authority was likely to be looked by the Muslims with disfavor. The Battle of Basra sanctioned the use of the sword as an arbiter in the matter of succession to the caliphate. It provided an argument to Muawiyah that if the people of Basra could fight against Ali, so could the people of Syria.
The victory of Basra instead of proving a source of strength for Ali, proved in the long run to be a source of weakness. Most of the people had joined Ali in the hope that as in other wars they would amass wealth by plundering the defeated people. When Ali forbade such plunder, that led to discontentment, and those who had participated in the battle came to feel that nothing was to be gained by fighting for Ali. That created difficulties for Ali in recruiting men to fight against Muawiyah.
The Battle of Basra was indeed precipitated by the regicides much against the wishes of Ali. The victory of Basra made the regicides more powerful. That led to very embarrassing results for Ali. In Basra, Ayesha had executed all the regicides of Basra. That provided an argument to Muawiyah and other enemies of Ali, that he was involved in the murder of Othman for he had taken no action against the regicides and was instead protecting them.
As the peace parleys at Basra before the outbreak of the battle showed, Ali did want to take action against the regicides of Kufa as Ayesha had taken action against the regicides of Basra. Subsequent developments however made things difficult for Ali. These people, rebellious by nature, became a source of great headache for Ali. When Ali appointed his cousin Abdullah b Abbas as the Governor of Basra, these men viewed the appointment critically and said, "If every Caliph is to appoint his relatives as the Governors, why did we kill the old man Othman?" As with the passage of time the crisis deepened, those people progressively gained in power and importance, and Ali in spite of all his valor, integrity, and other notable qualities became a virtual prisoner in the hands of those "rebels". The Battle of Basra has cast a fatal shadow across the history of Islam. It was the first civil war between the Muslims, and it set the unfortunate precedent for the Muslims to fight among themselves to seek some secular end. The Battle of the Camel served as a prelude to the massacre of Karbala a generation later. The argument of Yazid was that if Ali could take to the sword to assert his right to the caliphate, so could he when most of the people had in fact taken the oath of allegiance to him. If the people of Basra were rebels, and Ali was justified in military action against them, thus he was justified in taking action against Imam Husain who had rebelled against his authority.
Kufa, the new capital
From Basra, Ali did not proceed to Madina. He proceeded to Kufa instead. When Ali had sent a mission to Kufa to get volunteers for the fight against Basra, he had promised the people of Kufa that would make their city the capital of the caliphate. After his victory of Basra, Ali declared Kufa to be the capital of the Muslim Commonwealth. When Ali had left Madina for his campaign against Talha and Zubair little did he imagine that he was not destined to visit Madina again.
After winning the victory at Basra, Ali came to feel that as he had won a victory at Basra against Ayesha, Talha and Zubair, so would he be able to win a victory against Muawiyah. For a campaign against Syria, the response from the people of Madina had been poor. As the people of Madina were religiously more advanced they were averse to side with any party for an armed conflict among the Muslims. Some eminent companions in Madina had even abstained from taking the oath of allegiance to Ali, and had preferred to follow a policy of neutrality. As such Ali felt that for any confrontation with Muawiyah, Madina could not serve as a base.
When Othman had been assassinated, the rebels had violated the sanctity of the holy city of the holy Prophet. Ali was accordingly of the view that in order to preserve the sanctity of the holy city of Madina, it was expedient that the political capital should be shifted elsewhere so that the sacred city should be spared the ordeals of facing political storms.
In the campaign against Basra, Ali had succeeded in raising a large force from Kufa. Ali hoped that after the victory of Basra, the prospects of raising a still larger force from Kufa for the campaign against Syria would be brighter. Geographically Kufa was more centrally located, and a war against Syria could be carried more advantageously with the base at Kufa instead of Madina. Those considerations prompted Ali to establish his capital at Kufa.
Characteristics of Kufa and its people
Kufa was a new colony town founded in the late thirties of the seventh century during the caliphate of Umar. It was founded as a military cantonment consequent upon the Muslim conquest of Iraq. The town was populated by the Bedouins of Northern Arabia. These tribes originally belonged to Yemen. In the ancient period Yemen was known for its highly developed culture. The Yemenites boasted that they were the people who had taken their culture to ancient Egypt. They claimed to be the fathers of Arabian culture. Their culture was tribal in character, and though they had accepted Islam their culture at all retained many features of the pre-Islamic culture of the age of ignorance.
The city of Kufa was divided into a number of quarters, and each quarter was populated by one tribe. These people were late comers to Islam. Most of them apostatized after the death of the Holy Prophet as a result of the apostasy war. During the caliphate of Abu Bakr, they were reconverted to Islam. During the caliphate of Umar they played an important part in the conquest of Persia, Iran and Syria. Umar availed of the services of the men of Kufa in the ranks of his army, but he did not confer on them higher posts of trust and responsibility. Under Othman they came to hold high army posts. As long as the process of foreign conquests continued, all things remained quiet within the country. When the process of foreign conquests came to a grinding halt, disturbances broke out within the country in the revolt against Othman, the people of Kufa had taken the main part. When after the death of Othman, Ali became the Caliph, the cry for the vengeance for the blood of Othman was raised, and things became difficult for Ali, he had to seek the help of the people of Kufa. Indeed the victory of Basra was mainly due to the support of Ali by the people of Kufa. The rebels of Kufa who had participated in the murder of Othman had favored the election of Zubair as the Caliph, but later they chose to support Ali, and fight against Zubair at Basra. As the people of Kufa were late comers to the fold of Islam, they had not fully imbibed the Islamic values, and they became notorious for their perfidy and treachery. The purer Arabs of Hijaz regarded the Kufans as the "Bedouin element," the rabble of the Arabian stock.
Ali at Kufa
Ali reorganized the administration. He appointed Governors and administrators for various provinces and districts. He appointed Qazis for the various cities. He issued instructions requiring his officers to administer justice with a stern hand. He asked the tax collectors to be prompt in the collection of taxes. They were; however, warned not to adopt oppressive measures. He exhorted his officials to be scrupulously honest. He asked all concerned to do their duties diligently and conscientiously. He wanted that law and order should be maintained strictly. That all miscreants should be rounded up and suitably punished. He brought home to all concerned that he would not tolerate any dereliction of duty on the part of any official high or low. He emphasized the need of promoting Islamic values.
The plan of Ali was that soon after the victory of Basra when the morale of his forces was high, he should invade Syria and bring Muawiyah to his knees. Ali soon found that there were difficulties in the materialization of such plan. The Bedouins of Kufa were once again at their game of creating discontent against the established authority. In the Battle of the Camel, in spite of the victory of Ali, many persons of Kufa had been killed. There was hardly any family which had not lost someone in the battle. The people of Kufa mourned the death of such persons, and they were not inclined to risk another war. At Basra, Ali had prohibited his men to pillage Basra, enslave the Basrites or, plunder their property. The Battle of Basra had not brought any material gain to the people of Kufa, and they were reluctant to undertake another campaign, unless they were assured of some material advantage.
Ali appointed his relatives and friends as the Governors of some provinces. Ashtar, the Bedouin leader of Kufa, stirred trouble by criticizing Ali for such appointments. To the people of Kufa he said, "What benefit has accrued to us in shedding the blood of Othman for his favoritism when his successor is to indulge in the same practice?" Those who mourned for the deaths of their dear ones in the Battle of Basra posed the question, "What have we gained in fighting against the Mother of the Faithful?" Thus hardly had Ali begun his rule in Kufa when the embers of discontent began to smolder in the capital city. The irony of the situation was that Ali had hardly any military force at his disposal which he could put into the field by his order. He had to raise volunteers for any action and the people had their own moods. The initiative had thus came to rest with them, and they dictated terms subject to which they would fight. By shifting the capital from Madina, Ali could not expect much help from Madina or Makkah, and he had to depend heavily on the people of Kufa. The difficulty with the people of Kufa was that they would not fight for a cause; they could be induced to fight only for some material advantage.
The difficulties of Ali increased when trouble began in the province of Seestan. The trouble was created by the followers of Abdullah b Saba, the man who had led the revolt against Othman. The extremist section among these rebels considered that there was no fun in killing one Caliph when he was to be succeeded by another Caliph. The aim of these rebels was that they should capture power for themselves, and set up an independent state. When Ayesha had captured, she had executed all such Basrites who were involved in the assassination of Othman. Although Ali defeated the confederates yet he had taken no action to avenge the death of those Basrites. The followers of Ibn Sabah raised the cry for the vengeance for the execution of these parties. They gained ascendancy in Seestan, which province broke into open revolt, and refused to pay taxes. Ali sent a force from Kufa to put down the revolt. The force of Ali suffered defeat. Another force sent from Kufa met a similar fate. It appears that there was some treachery in the ranks of the force of Ali. Ali thereafter raised another force from Yemen, and other parts of the empire and sent it to Seestan under the command of Abdullah b Abbas, the Governor of Basra. This time the rebels were defeated, and the revolt was suppressed. The campaigns in Seestan affected the prestige of the caliphate, and proved to be a great strain on the already meager resources at the disposal of the caliphate. In the campaign against Seestan much time was lost, and this loss of time worked to the advantage of Muawiyah and the disadvantage of Ali. According to one account the trouble in Seestan was created by the agents of Muawiyah who had no scruples in making common cause with the murderers of Othman.
Importance of Egypt
Among the provinces of the Muslim Commonwealth, Egypt was the most important province. In the revolt against Othman the Egyptian rebels had played the lea ding role. Ali was popular among the Egyptians, and the proposal to elect Ali as the Caliph was in the first instance sponsored by the Egyptians. When Muawiyah who led the opposition against Ali was strongly entrenched in Syria, it was vital for Ali that he should have a strong hold on Egypt. In this context the question of the appointment of a Governor for Egypt was a matter of utmost importance.
Qais bin Sa'ad
During the caliphate of Othman, Abdullah b Abi Sarah was the Governor of Egypt. When the opposition to Othman gathered strength, Abdullah b Abi Sarah was overthrown by Muhammad b Hudaifa. Muhammad b Hudaifa was a cousin of Othman. When Hudaifa died, Othman took over the responsibility for the upbringing of Muhammad, and treated him as a son when Muhammad grew up he fell out with Othman and escaped to Egypt where he incited the people to rebel against the authority of Othman. In the confusion following the assassination of Othman, Muhammad b Abi Hudaifa was enticed by Muawiyah to come to Arish on the borders of Palestine where he was murdered treacherously. Muawiyah's attempt to conquer Egypt, however, failed.
On becoming the Caliph, Ali appointed Qais b Sa'ad as the Governor of Egypt. He was a seasoned warrior and enjoyed great fame for his wisdom and diplomacy. He belonged to a distinguished Ansar family of Madina. He was proud of his lineage and was much devoted to Ali. Ali asked him to take with him some troops from Madina. Qais said that the Caliph needed the troops at Madina, and he would not like to weaken the defenses of Madina in any way. Qais left for Madina with a retinue consisting of seven persons only.
Affairs of Egypt
The affairs of Egypt were at that time in a state great disarray. By great skill and bravery, Qais succeeded in assuming the charge of the governorship of Egypt. He addressed the people in the mosque, and delivered to them Ali's message of goodwill. He took the oath of allegiance to Ali from the people. Saddled in power, Qais sent his agents to the various parts of Egypt to obtain the oath of allegiance of the people to Ali. Such oath was subscribed to by all the people with two exceptions. In Kharbata, the Banu Adlaj led by Yazid Harith did not take the oath of allegiance to Ali. The tribe led by the chief Muslama b Mukhalled were pro-Othman and their sympathies were with the Umayyads and Muawiyah. With great tact and diplomatic skill, Qais b Saad succeeded in making a treaty of neutrality with them. They undertook that if they were not pressed to take an oath of allegiance to Ali, they would not create any trouble for the government of Egypt or the caliphate of Ali. Qais considered that to neutralize these people, was in the best interests of the caliphate, and it was not expedient to press them to take the oath of allegiance to Ali.
Intrigues of Muawiyah
The plan of Muawiyah was that with Yazid b Harith, and Miasmal b Mukhalled he would create trouble for the government of Egypt. By making a treaty of neutrality with these people, Qais denied Muawiyah the possibility of having a foothold in Egypt. Thereupon he tried to cultivate Qais. Muawiyah asked Qais to join him, and in lieu thereof he promised him and his posterity the governorship of Egypt in perpetuity. Qais spurned this offer and declared that he was loyal to Ali and could not betray him at any cost. Muawiyah changed his tactics, and tried to make Qais believe that in supporting Ali he was supporting the murderers of Othman. Qais repudiated this view. He said that he was in Madina when Othman was assassinated and it was incorrect that Ali had supported the rebels or was involved in any way with the murder of Othman.
Having failed to win over Qais to his side, Muawiyah resorted to intrigue to create suspicion between Ali and Qais. Muawiyah whipped up propaganda to the effect that Qais was his ally, and would betray Ali at the proper time for such revolt. In proof of his claim for the friendship of Qais he asserted that Qais had not suppressed the party of the Egyptians who demanded vengeance for the blood of Othman and had not taken the oath of allegiance to Ali.
The agents of Muawiyah carried the propaganda to Kufa, and when Ali came to know of these persistent rumors he began to harbor doubts about the loyalty of Qais. Muhammad b Jafar and Muhammad b Abu Bakr the step sons of Ali pressed on Ali to put Qais to test. The two young men argued prima facie that there appeared to be truth in the rumors, for Qais had in fact not taken any action against the people who had not taken the oath of allegiance to Ali, but had on the other hand tried to conciliate them. In order to test the loyalty of Qais, Ali directed Qais to take into custody the chiefs of the tribes who had not taken the oath of allegiance to Ali and who stood for vengeance for the blood of Othman.
Qais wrote back to say that it would be inexpedient to arrest the chiefs of the people. They had entered into a treaty of neutrality with him, and they were abiding by the treaty. The treaty stipulated that as long as they were not pressed to take the oath of allegiance to Ali they would not raise the cry for the vengeance for the blood of Othman. He observed that he had established law and order in the province with some difficulty, and if the chiefs were arrested that would create unrest and law and order situation. The government of Egypt would in that case be accused of breach of faith and that would provide an opportunity to Muawiyah to interfere in the affairs of Egypt. He pointed out that being the man on the spot he knew what course of action was in the interests of the Caliphate. He pointed out that he had framed his policies in the best interests of the Caliphate and any change therein at that stage would adversely affect the interests of the Caliphate. He advised Ali to review his order and not to press for any action against the people who had not taken the oath of allegiance to Ali, but were otherwise not creating any trouble for the administration. Qais added that if Ali did not agree with him it was open to him to depose him and appoint another Governor.
Deposition of Qais
The arguments advanced by Qais did not carry weight with Ali that made Ali suspicious of the loyalty of Qais. The stand taken by Qais against the orders of Ali was interpreted by Ali to be an evidence of Qais's alignment with those who wanted to create trouble for Ali by raising the cry for vengeance for the blood of Othman. Ali deposed Qais. When Muawiyah came to know of these developments he felt happy that his plan to sow dissentions between Ali and Qais had succeeded. He invited Qais to come over to Syria after his deposition, and offered him a high office. Qais refused the offer. He held that though Ali had misunderstood him ant treated him unjustly yet this could not affect his loyalty to Ali. After deposition Qais returned to Madina. The deposition of Qais from the governorship of Egypt proved to be a great mistake. It set the stage for the occupation of Egypt by Muawiyah.
Qais and Ali
Muawiyah and his agents scored a victory where their intrigues succeeded and Qais was deposed. The next line of action on the part of Muawiyah was to win over Qais to his side. When Muawyiah failed in this object because of the unswerving loyalty of Qais to Ali, Muawyiah made further efforts to insure that Qais and Ali did not reconcile. The agents of Muawyiah in Madina tried to persuade Qais to abandon the cause of Ali, but when he refused to fall in line with them they began to taunt him for his loyalty to the man who did not appreciate his services and the way Ali had treated him. Exasperated by such taunts, Qais decided to visit Ali at Kufa, and demand a fair hearing from Ali. Ali received Qais with due courtesy. The two men had a heart to heart dialogue. As a result of these talks, Ali was convinced of the loyalty of Qais. Ali wanted Qais to remain by his side, and he appointed him as his Chief Adviser. The reaction of Muawyiah to the appointment of Qais as the Chief Adviser of Ali was expressed by him in a letter to his agent in Madina who had taunted Qais in the following words: "By taunting Qais and thereby forcing him to join Ali you have acted as a fool had you given a hundred thousand men to Ali, it would have been a lesser evil to me than to give the counsel of such a man as Qais to my enemy."
Muawiyah's early life
Muawiyiah belonged to the Umayyad section of the Quraish of Makkah. Muawiyah and the Holy Prophet had Abd Manaf as their common ancestor. The Holy Prophet was the son of Abdullah who was the son of Abdul Muttalib, who was the son of Hashim who was the son of Abd Manaf. Muawiyah was the son of Abu Sufiyan, who was the son of Harb, who was the son of Umayyah, who was the son of Abd Shams, who was the son Abd Manaf. Hashim and Abd Shams were the two sons of Abd Manaf. The Holy Prophet was a descendant of Hashim while Muawiyah was a descendant of Abd Shams. Umayyah the son of Abd Shams was an important man of the line, and his descendants came to be known after him as the Umayyads.
Abu Sufiyan the father of Muawiyah was a Quraish magnate. When the Holy Prophet declared his mission, Abu Sufiyan was conspicuous for his hostility to the Holy Prophet and Islam. He led the Quraish army against the Muslims in the battles of Uhud and the Trench. Muawiyah's mother was the atrocious woman who made necklaces and bracelets of the ears and noses of the Muslims slain at Uhud. She ripped the dead body of Hamza, an uncle of the Holy Prophet, martyred at Uhud, took out the liver and put her teeth in it.
It was only after the conquest of Makkah by the Muslims that Abu Sufiyan and his family including Muawiyah submitted to Islam. After conversion to Islam, Muawiyah acted for some time as a Secretary to the Holy Prophet. During the caliphate of Abu Bakr and Umar, Muawiyah and his elder brother Abu Yazid fought against the Byzantines in Syria.
Umar appointed Abu Ubaida b Jarrah as the Governor of Syria. On the death of Abu Ubaida, Abu Yazid the brother of Muawiyah was appointed as the Governor of Syria. On the death of Abu Yazid, Umar appointed Muawiyah as the Governor of Syria. When Othman who was a cousin of Muawiyah became the Caliph, he confirmed Muawiyah in his appointment as the Governor of Syria, and added some other territories to his jurisdiction.
Character of Muawiyah
Muawiyah was a typical Arab, and he had all the virtues and vices which characterized the Arabs before their conversion to Islam. As the Governor of Syria he won the hearts of the people by gifts and concessions. He was a man, tall, fair, handsome and of dignified bearing. Umar often said about Muawiyiah that he was the Caesar of the Arabs. His great personal charm, his affability, his attractive and pleasant disposition, his good manners, and his eloquence endeared him to the people. He was known to his people as "the silver tongued Amir". His intelligence, his sagacity, his pursuit of poetry, his shrewdness, and his sense of humor made him the "beau ideal" of the people. He was proverbial for his forbearance. He was a diplomat and a politician par excellence. In wining battles he relied more on the effective use of the tongue than on the sword. He was a past master in propaganda. He was of the view that it was the end and not the mess that mattered, and in the achievement of the end, any means fair or foul could be adopted. Islam had enjoined austerity in living, but Muawiyah preferring the Byzantine way followed a luxurious way of life. He was fond of pomp, ceremony and lavish ostentation. He built costly palaces for himself. For the people of Syria used to the Byzantine way of life, there was nothing objectionable in such display of power and pelf. To the orthodox Muslims such wayward luxuriance was frivolous and profane.
Conflict between Ali and Muawiyah
After his election as the Caliph, Ali deposed Muawiyah from the governorship of Syria. Muawiyah did not accept the orders of Ali and refused to vacate office. While in all other provinces, oath of allegiance was taken to Ali, under the influence of Muawiyah no one in Syria took the oath of allegiance of his authority amounted to rebellion pure and simple. At the outset of his rule, Ali planned an action against Syria to suppress the revolt.
Things however got complicated, and instead of being resolved got tangled with the lapse of time. Muawiyah enjoyed the support of the people of Syria. Ali was thus not able to take disciplinary action against Muawiyah as the Head of a State could ordinarily take against a defiant subordinate. If Muawiyah had to be deposed, military action was necessary against the people of Syria. That obviously meant the Muslims fighting against the Muslims. This was something repugnant to Islam, and as such when Ali gave the call to arms for a military action against Syria, the response from the people of Madina was very poor. Expedition against Syria had therefore to be deferred for some reason or the other. The delay worked to the advantage of Muawiyah, as thereby he consolidated his power.
Difficulties were created for Ali, when Talha and Zubair who had taken the oath of allegiance to him defected and were joined by Ayesha. Ayesha, Talha and Zubair occupied Basra and Ali had to lead a force against Basra instead of against Syria. Ali won the victory over the confederates but this was achieved at a heavy cost. Over ten thousand persons died in this battle and their death was deeply mourned by the Muslim world. That also proved to be a drain at the limited resources at the disposal of Ali. When after the Basra campaign Ali turned to Syria, Muawiyah had become stronger, and things for Ali became all the more difficult.
Strategy of Muawiyah
The conflict between Ali and Muawiyah had its roots in history. The Hashimites and the Umayyads were cousins and there was usual rivalry and enmity between them. During the time of Abdul Muttalib the leadership of the Quraish vested in the Hashimites. After the death of Abdul Muttalib the leadership passed on to the Umayyads. When the Holy Prophet declared his mission, the Umayyads were in the forefront in opposition to the Holy Prophet. Apart from religious scruples, one of the grounds for such opposition was the apprehension of the Umayyads that if Islam gained strength, the leadership would pass on to the Hashimites. When the Muslims conquered Makkah, the Umayyads had to accept the leadership of the Hashimites. After the death of the Holy Prophet, the Caliphate was held by Abu Bakr and Umar who were neither Hashimites nor Umayyads. The third Caliph Othman was an Umayyad, and during his Caliphate the Umayyads came to be strongly entrenched in power. Indeed one of the main allegations of the rebels against Othman was that he had unduly favored the Umayyads. When after the assassination of Othman, Ali was elected as the Caliph, the Umayyads became uneasy to the transfer of power to the Hashimites. The real aim of Muawiyah was to create difficulties in the way of Ali in order to pave the way for the transfer of power to the Umayyads. The conflict between Ali and Muawiyah was really the recurrence of the old rivalry between the Hashimites and the Umayyads.
Ali, an outspoken and straightforward man, wanted to exert authority over Muawiyah for the simple reason that he had been elected as the Caliph and all authority vested in him. Pressing all his qualities as a shrewd politician into service, Muawiyah proceeded to undermine the authority of Ali by resorting to propaganda against Ali, and adopting other underhand means. He raised the cry for vengeance for the blood of Othman. He displayed the blood stained garments of Othman, and the amputated fingers of Othman's wife Naila in the main mosque at Damascus. This display was backed up by propaganda which raised the emotions of the people to a high pitch. With all the vehemence at his command, he addressed the congregations accusing Ali of complicity in the murder of Othman. He maintained that the erection of Ali as Caliph was irregular as it was held under the pressure of the rebels who had assassinated Othman. When Talha and Zubair defected from Ali and advanced the plea that they had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali under the coercion of the rebels, that furnished Muawiyah another argument for criticizing Ali. When Talha and Zubair were killed at Basra, Muawiyah presented them as martyrs who had given up their lives in seeking vengeance for the blood of Othman. He maintained that Ali was not merely involved in the murder of Othman, he was guilty of the murder of thousands of Muslims including Talha and Zubair as well. He criticized Ali for the ill treatment of Ayesha.
Muawiyah did not rest content with carrying on propaganda against Ali, he undertook steps to weaken the hold of Ali on the territories held by him. Muawiyah was shrewd enough to see that if Egypt held fast Ali, it could stab a dagger in the back of Syria. Muawiyah therefore directed his efforts towards undermining the influence of Ali in Egypt. At that time Ali had a Governor in Egypt who was very loyal to him, and who held the province well under control. Muawiyah tried to bribe the Governor and win him over to his side. When he did not succeed in this effort, he resorted to intrigues to make Ali suspicious of the loyalty of his Governor. Under some misunderstanding Ali deposed his Governor. That weakened the hold of Ali on Egypt. In order to take advantage of this tactical mistake on the part of Ali, Muawiyah stood in need of an ally who could conquer Egypt for him. He soon found such an ally in the person of 'Amr b Al-'Aas known to history as the "Conqueror of Egypt". He was the Governor of Egypt during the reign of Umar. Othman had deposed him. That created bitterness between Othman and 'Amr b Al-Aas. 'Amr b Al-Aas had in fact incited the Egyptians to rebel against the authority of Othman. He had gone to the extent of challenging Othman that he would raise even all the shepherds of the land against him. Muawiyah in spite of his cry of vengeance for the blood of Othman found no harm in making an alliance with a man who had in fact incited the rebellion against Othman. 'Amr b Al-Aas in spite of his bitter opposition to Othman during his lifetime saw nothing wrong in joining the chorus for vengeance for the blood of the man in whose murder he was indirectly if not directly involved.
Muawiyah realized that if he had to go to fight against Ali, the Byzantines could take advantage of such rift among the Muslims and invade Syria. He, therefore, made peace with the Byzantines on terms favorable to them, and even agreed to pay them an annual tribute.
Muawiyah was also shrewd enough to realize that in case he had to strive for capturing power he must have a strong army at his disposal. He accordingly built a strong standing army. On the other hand, Ali had no large standing army at his disposal and for each campaign he had to raise volunteers.
Since the election of Ali as the Caliph, Muawiyah had been raising the cry for vengeance for the blood of Othman, and all the time had been trying to build up his strength. A year after the election of Ali, Muawiyah was strong enough to take the offensive against Ali.
Amr b Al-Aas, pre-Islamic period
'Amr b Al-Aas was a prominent member of the Banu Sahm section of the Quraish. His father Al-Aas b Wail was the chief of the Banu Sahm and was a well to do merchant who commanded great influence among the Quraish of Makkah. When the Holy Prophet of Islam announced his mission, Al-Aas was one of the prominent members of the Quraish who pressed all their influence into service to oppose the Holy Prophet and torture the Muslims. Hisham a brother of 'Amr, however, accepted Islam in the early years of the mission of the Holy Prophet, and in spite of the pressure of his father did not recant from Islam. Hisham was one of the Muslims to migrate to Abysinnia. 'Amr headed the delegation that the Quraish sent to Abysinnia to prevail upon the ruler of Abysinnia to turn away the Muslims from his country. The mission failed and the ruler of Abysinnia refused to oblige the Quraish. After the migration of the Holy Prophet to Madina 'Amr took part in all the battles that the Quraish fought against the Muslims.
Conversion to Islam
After the pact of Hudaibiya, the truth dawned on 'Amr b Al-Aas and he hastened to Madina along with Khalid b Walid where they accepted Islam. After conversion to Islam, 'Amr b Al-Aas proved to be a great asset for Islam. The Holy Prophet entrusted him with some important missions which he fulfilled successfully; Later the Holy Prophet appointed him as the Governor of Oman. After the death of the Holy Prophet, when Abu Bakr became the Caliph he was recalled from Oman to lead campaigns against some of the apostate tribes. After the end of the apostasy wars he was commissioned to undertake campaigns in Palestine and Syria. During the Caliphate of Umar he invaded Egypt and conquered it. In the history of Islam he enjoys fame as the "Conqueror of Egypt". Umar appointed him as the Governor of Egypt. When Othman became the Caliph, he allowed 'Amr to continue as the Governor of Egypt for some time. Later 'Amr was deposed and Othman appointed his foster brother as the Governor of Egypt.
Amr's opposition to Othman
'Amr b Al-Aas felt much grieved at his deposition. Back in Madina, 'Amr had an interview with Othman which ended in bitterness. He began to criticize the administration of Othman in harsh terms. He played an important part in fanning discontent against the caliphate of Othman. In the revolt against Othman, the Egyptians were in the forefront and one of the grievances of the Egyptians was the deposition of 'Amr b Al-Aas from the governorship of Egypt 'Amr b Al-Aas made no secret of his opposition to Othman. He openly challenged Othman that he would raise the entire Muslim world against him. When the revolt against Othman gained momentum, and Madina came to be thronged with rebels from various parts of the Muslim world, 'Amr b Al-Aas left Madina for his lands in Palestine. He was in Palestine when Othman was assassinated.
Caliphate of Ali
After the assassination of Othman, 'Amr b Al-Aas decided to follow a policy of neutrality and watch further developments. When Ali was elected as the Caliph, 'Amr b Al-Aas neither took the oath of allegiance to Ali nor opposed him. 'Amr b Al-Aas had expected that Ali would offer him the governorship of Egypt. If Ali had offered him the governorship of Egypt he would have offered him allegiance. In the absence of such offer 'Amr b Al-Aas decided to remain in Palestine and watch further developments. Ali appointed Qais b Sa'ad as the Governor of Egypt. Qais proved to be a good Governor, and he kept Egypt safe for Ali. Muawiyah succeeded in creating differences between Ali and Qais which culminated in the deposition of Qais. Amr b Al-Aas expected that Ali would in his own interests appoint him as the Governor of Egypt. When Ali appointed Muhammad b Abu Bakr as the Governor of Egypt, 'Amr b Al-Aas despaired of any recognition from Ali. That threw him in the lap of Muawiyah.
Muawiyah and 'Amr b Al-Aas
Muawiyah was shrewd enough to see that for any confrontation with Ali, it was necessary that Egypt should be wrested from the control of Ali. It was plain enough that if Egypt was to be with Ali, Egypt could very well thrust a dagger in the back of Syria. It was in this context that Muawiyah tried to get Qais removed from the governorship. He succeeded in this effort when Ali deposed Qais b Sa'ad and appointed Muhammad b Abu Bakr in his place as the Governor of Egypt. Muhammad b Abu Bakr was a rash impetuous young man, and Muawyiah felt sure that he would not be able to effectively control the affairs of Egypt. Muawiyah's plan was to create disturbances in Egypt, and take advantage of such disturbances to capture Egypt. For this purpose he needed a man who commanded influence in Egypt. When he looked around he realized that the most suitable person in this behalf was 'Amr b Al-Aas. He accordingly invited 'Amr b Al-Aas to Damascus. When 'Amr came to Damascus he was given an almost royal reception. The two men agreed to make common cause against Ali. Muawiyah decided to make 'Amr the Commander-in-Chief of his forces. He was also promised the governorship of Egypt on the conquest of that province. Such alliance between Muawiyah and 'Amr b Al-Aas was to prove a great setback for Ali. It is strange that Muawiyah fought against Ali to claim vengeance for the blood of Othman, and yet entrusted the command of his forces to a man who had actually incited the Egyptians to revolt, and had openly defied and thrown a challenge to Othman.
The task before Ali
After Ali had established his capital at Kufa, the task before him was to tackle the problem of Syria through peaceful means, if possible, and through the use of sword, if otherwise. Muawiyah had defied the authority of Ali and in the interests of the solidarity of Islam. It was necessary that Muawiyah should be persuaded to submit to the authority of Ali, and if he was not inclined to listen to reason, action should be taken against him as any government would take an action against a rebel.
As a matter of fact, Ali planned an action against Syria immediately after his election. The expedition against Syria had to be deferred as the response of the people of Madina for a war against Syria was poor. Later, complications arose when Talha and Zubair defected, and under the leadership of Ayesha the confederates occupied Basra. In the circumstances, Ali was forced to march to Basra instead of Syria. Ali won the victory at Basra, and the revolt of the confederates was successfully suppressed, though with considerable loss.
Ali had a plan to march against Syria just after his victory of Basra. The expedition had however to be deferred. Ali needed some time to consolidate his rule at Kufa. Adequate response from the people of Kufa to undertake an expedition against Syria was not forthcoming. Further complications arose when a revolt broke out in Seestan. This revolt was suppressed with some difficulty.
Envoy to Syria
After suppression of the revolt in Seestan, Ali once more turned to the affairs of Syria. By this time, a year had elapsed since the election of Ali. During this period, Muawiyah had added to his strength. He had persisted in his propaganda in the name of vengeance for the blood of Othman. Ali felt that the expedition against Syria had already been sufficiently delayed, and such immediate action to tackle the problem effectively was called for.
Although Ali had every justification to lead a military expedition to Syria forthwith, he nevertheless decided to explore the possibilities of arriving at a settlement through peaceful means in the first instance. He wanted to send an envoy to Muawiyah, and in this connection he looked for man who commanded some influence with Muawiyah. The choice of Ali in this connection fell on Jarir b Abdullah. He was the Governor of Hamdan under Othman. Ali had retained him in his office, and he had taken the oath of allegiance to Ali. He was a personal friend of Muawiyah. Ali summoned Jarir b Abdullah to Kufa, and commissioned him to proceed as his envoy to Syria and prevail upon Muawiyah to submit to the authority of Ali. Malik Ashtar the leader of the regicides advised Ali that Jarir should not be sent to Syria for he was a friend of Muawiyah, and he would promote the interests of Muawiyah, rather than those of Ali. Ashtar opted to go himself. As Malik Ashtar was involved in the assassination of Othman, Ali did not consider it advisable to send him as an envoy to Syria.
Jarir b Abdullah went to Syria. He was warmly received by Muawiyah. Jarir tried to persuade Muawiyah to submit to the authority of Ali. Ali, so argued Jarir was the elected Caliph, and in the interests of the solidarity of Islam it was necessary to maintain the unity of Ummah. Muawiyah detained Jarir, and asked him to see things for himself. In the main mosque of Damascus the blood stained shirt and the amputated fingers of Naila were displayed and as the faithful entered the mosque and looked at these relics they wept and mourned at the death of Othman. They took the oath that they would not rest content until they had avenged the murder of Othman. Jarir b Abdullah visited other cities in Syria, and everywhere he saw the people prepared for war to avenge the death of Othman.
Jarir b Abdullah returned to Kufa to report that the people of Syria were bent upon making war to avenge the death of Othman. On the failure of the mission of Jarir, Malik Ashtar said that he already knew that nothing could come out of his mission as he was Muawiyah's man. Malik Ashtar said that if he had been sent as an envoy the results would have been different. Jarir retorted that the people of Syria would have murdered him. Ashtar said that he would have first murdered Muawiyah. Hot words were exchanged between Malik Ashtar and Jarir. Jarir felt disgusted and shifted to Syria where he was well looked after by Muawiyah.
Muawiyah's envoy
When Muawiyah incited the people of Syria to war against Ali there were some people who were averse to the Muslims fighting among themselves. A group of such persons led by Abu Muslim waited on Muawiyah, and advised him to abstain from war. Muawiyah said that all that he wanted was "Qasas" for the murder of Othman which was a religious obligation for him. He added that if Ali took the Qasas from those who were involved in the murder of Othman, or handed over such persons to him he would be prepared to offer allegiance to Ali. Abu Muslim volunteered to go to Kufa as an envoy of Muawiyah. Muawiyah agreed and sent him to Ali as his envoy. Ali took the envoy to the mosque and there explained to the people the purpose of his mission. Thereupon all the people assembled in the mosque cried with one voice "We all are the murderers of Othman." Turning to the envoy Ali said "You may tell Muawiyah what you have seen and heard". Abu Muslim returned disappointed to Syria. Things had come to be tied in such knots that there appeared to be no possibility of resolving that dispute through peaceful means. On one side, the people of Syria clamored for war to avenge the murder of Othman, and on the other side, the people of Iraq held that they all were the murderers of Othman. In the circumstances, war appeared to be inevitable. Muawiyah maintained that just as the confederates under Ayesha invaded Basra to take action against such Basrites who were involved in the murder of Othman, thus he would have to invade Iraq to punish those who were guilty of the murder of Othman. The stand of Ali was that the cry for the vengeance for the blood of Othman was merely a pretext for capturing power, for in case Muawiyah was really interested in claiming "Qasas." The proper course for him was to take the oath of allegiance to him, and then lodge a claim for "Qasas" in the usual way enjoined by law. Ali maintained that if Muawiyah persisted in his stand and refused to listen to reason there would be no option with him (Ali), but to fight against Muawiyah as he had fought against the confederates at Basra.
Letters of Ali
In Nahj-ul-Balagha there are some letters which Ali addressed to Muawiyah. These letters command historical importance, and provide the background material for assessing and evaluating what happened at this critical period of Islamic history.
Finality of the election of the Caliph
Muawiyah objected to the election of Ali as the Caliph. Ali refused the objection in the following terms: "I was elected by the same electorate which had elected my three predecessors, namely: Abu Bakr, Umar, and Othman. After the election had taken place, and the people had declared allegiance to the newly elected Caliph, neither those who were present, nor those who were absent have the right to object to the election. The electorate consists of the Muhajirin and the Ansars only, and if this electorate has elected the Caliph, the election is final and is binding on the entire Ummah. In view of this legal position if anybody objects to such election, and repudiates the decision of the competent electorate, he is a rebel, and has to be treated as such. O Muawiyah, I solemnly declare that if you take a fair view of the matter without any prejudice or bias, you will realize that I am not even remotely connected with the murder of Othman. It is quite another matter that you are levying this accusation against me only to promote your ulterior purpose".
Criticism of Muawiyah
In reply to the above letter, Muawiyah used insolent words, and maintained the accusation against Ali of murdering Othman. Ali replied to this letter in the following terms: "I have received your letter which is a tissue of lies, and which shows your evil nature. Your letter is a letter of a person, who has neither the light to lighten the dark way, nor any guide to lead him. It is the letter of a person who is obsessed with his ulterior motive, and is deliberately treading the way of perdition. Your letter is meaningless and baseless. Under the law there is only one "baiy'at" which has been held. It has attained finality and is not susceptible of any review or revision. He who objects to the "baiy'at" in fact denounces Islam."
Delivery of the murderers of Othman
Muawiyah demanded that the murderers of Othman should be handed over to him. In reply, Ali wrote as follows:
Our community resolved to assassinate the Holy Prophet. They decided to uproot the descendants of the Holy Prophet. They made many plans to destroy us. They withheld water supply from us. They subjected us to great trials and tribulations. God, however, came to our help, and saved his religion. During this period the believers advocated the cause, but the infidels were moved by considerations of loyalty to the tribe. The practice of the Holy Prophet was that when any war was at its height, he would make his relatives face the brunt of the battle. In the Battle of Badr, Ubaida b Harith was martyred. Hamza met his martyrdom in the Battle of Uhud. Jafar my elder brother was martyred in the Battle of Mutah. I did not lag behind in these wars but martyrdom was withheld from me. It is a vicissitude of times that I have to deal with a man who cannot take even two steps with me, and who cannot claim priority over me. If any one raises a false claim, may God take care of. As regards the demand that the murderers of Othman should be delivered to you, I cannot accept the demand for you have rebelled against my authority and I have to deal with you as a rebel."
Challenge to Muawiyah
Muawiyah gave the threat of war, and in reply Ali challenged him as follows: "O Muawiyah what will you do when this mantle of the world which you are wearing is taken off from you. The world has attracted you. It spread its net, and you have been trapped therein. The world called you, and you welcomed its call. You have forgotten that you will be summoned to a place where no shield would protect you. Thus you should desist from the course you have adopted. Prepare your account, and take steps to protect you from the disaster that is going to overwhelm you. Do not listen to the advice of those who have strayed from the right path. If you do not desist from the wrong course that you have adopted, bear in mind that I would bring to you to senses. What are you? You are merely a wayward profligate man who has been enslaved by Satan. Satan has now become your sole guide, the end all and be all of your existence. O Muawiyah tell me when were you the leader of the community, and the ruler of the people. You had no priority in Islam. Even in the age of ignorance you held no office. Seek the protection of God. Misfortune makes you tread the wrong way. Fired with ambition and greed you are proceeding on the way that leads to perdition.
You have invited me to war. Very well Keep all the men aside, and step forward to meet me in single combat. Why engage all the troops in armed conflict. Let us decide this issue by a duel, so that it may become evident as to who has gone astray and has become blind. Have you forgotten that I am the man who in the Battle of Badr killed your maternal grandfather, maternal uncle and brother. You accepted Islam as a matter of expediency and Islam is as yet not a matter of faith with you. You have declared that you have stepped into the field to seek vengeance for the blood of Othman. You know very well who were responsible for the murder of Othman. If you are in earnest in your declaration, seek vengeance from the right quarter. But I am seeing something else. I very well see that when war is brought about, you will shriek like a wounded camel. I foresee that in war afraid of the carnage your men will call me to go back of God, although they have falsified the word of God and violated the oath of allegiance that they had taken to me. "
Partition of the Muslim state
Muawiyah suggested that the Muslim State be partitioned and Syria be assigned to him. Ali replied in the following terms: "As regards your proposal that Syria be assigned to you I cannot accept that proposal today which I have rejected yesterday. Your observation that war has eaten into the vital of the Arabs, you should bear in mind that those who fought in the cause of God have earned paradise and those who fought to secure a worldly end have already been sentenced to hell. Your statement that in the matter of military strength we both are at par, is mere presumption, and presumption cannot take the place of conviction. Also keep in mind that the people of Iraq are as much desirous of paradise as the people of Syria covet that world. Your statement that we both are the descendants of Abd Manaf is correct, but it should be remembered that the Banu Umayya are not to equal to Banu Hashim; Harb can not equal Abdul Muttalib; Sufiyan is not equal to Abu Talib, nor can falsehood equal the truth. You have forgotten that we have honor of prophethood with us. It was because of this prophethood that the powerful were humbled, and the lowly were elevated. When Islam triumphed and the people willingly or unwillingly were converts, who accepted the faith because of fear, or greed. In the circumstances the proper thing for you that you should not allow Satan to overpower you."
Ali and his predecessors
In the letter, Muawiyah took the stand that Ali did not offer whole-hearted support to the previous three Caliphs, namely Abu Bakr, Umar, and Othman. The game of Muawiyah was the Ali should say somthing against his predecessors which Muawiyah could exploit for the purpose of the propaganda. Ali replied to this letter in the following terms: "You have told me that God chose the Holy prophet for delivering his message, and the companions accepted the message. To tell this to me who belong to household of the Holy prophet is like the carrying of the dates to Hijr which is known for the abundance of its dates. You have claimed that in Islam such and such person have precedence. This assertion is such that if it is correct you are not even remotely connected therewith, if it is not correct that would not harm you in any way. How are you concerned with the matter as to who is superior or otherwise in the matter of Islam. Your sponsoring this issue is like making the criminal the judge.
Muawiyah you are fast speeding on the road to perdition. You have transgressed all limits. Desist from your ignominy. Remember that we are the household of the Holy prophet and whom God has already tested. Have you ever thought that our clan is to supervise your clan but nevertheless the Holy prophet contracted some marital relation with household to save you from any feeling of inferiority complex. We claim precedence in Islam because we belong to the household of the Holy Prophet, and we were most devoted to him. You have alleged that I was jealous of all the caliphs preceding me, and was hostile to them. If what you say is for the sake of argument correct, I have not committed any fault for which I owe an explanation to you. You said that in making me take the oath of allegiance to the previous Caliphs I was dragged as a camel with the bridle in its nose. You have thus presented me as a person who is deprived of his right and is oppressed. By your misguided criticism you have in fact praised me. You have referred to my attitude to Othman. I must reply to this part of your letter for you are related to him. Please peep into your heart and say who set the net for his murder, you or I. Is it not a fact that you remained indifferent to his protection, while I tried my best to the last to avert the crisis. I owe you no apology when I admit that I did differ from him in the matter of his policies, and I always tried to offer him sound advice, which he did not or could not accept. You have written that for me you have nothing but sword. That has made me laugh. When did you find the descendants of Abdul Muttalib fear the sword or shrank from war when it was forced on them. Do not worry. I will soon bring my troops to face you in battle."
Ali's army
When war between Ali and Muawiyah became inevitable, preparations for a show down were made by both the sides. Ali managed to raise an army 90,000 strong. It included men from Kufa, Iraq, Basra and Madina. Ali made Malik Ashtar the Commander-in-Chief of his forces. The army was divided into a number of commands and each command had its own commander.
In the correspondence that was exchanged between the two sides, option was given to Ali to lead the force to Syria or let the Syrian forces come to Iraq Ali opted to lead his forces to Syria. In March 657, Ali set out from Kufa at the head of his army. From Rufa the army proceeded to Madina. Here more troops joined the army of Ali. From Madina Ali set out for Syria. His plan was to march through Upper Mesopotamia and invade Syria from the north. The advance guard of the army advanced along the western bank of the Euphrates. The main army under Ali advanced up to the Tigris, and thereafter entered the Mesopotamian desert.
March through the desert
The march of the army through the desert was a great ordeal. The long trek across the desert exhausted the water supplies at the disposal of the troops, and the absence of water became an acute problem. Ali sent his scouts to inquire of the tribesmen in the desert whether there were any wells or springs in the neighborhood which could supply water to the troops. The tribesmen said that there were no wells or spring in the neighborhood.
Ali had heard that some centuries ago the Israeli patriarchs had dug wells in the desert, and he hoped to be able to find out these ancient sites. The scouts who contacted the tribes in the desert were not able to get any clue of a spring or a well in the desert. One of the scouts, however, brought back with him an old Christian hermit who said that there was indeed a cistern in the neighborhood in the past, but it had gone dry. The hermit added that according to old legends, a hidden well existed somewhere in the neighborhood, and its mouth was covered with an enormous stone, but no one knew about the actual site of the legendary well. He observed that according to popular belief no one could locate the hidden well, except a prophet or the representative of a prophet.
Miracle of the well
Ali himself proceeded on a survey of the desert. At one place Ali saw a huge stone, and he asked his men to dig at that site. Miraculously a well was discovered at the site the water supply whereof was more than enough for the needs of the troops. As the ancient well was discovered, the Christian hermit was thrilled at the miracle. Addressing Ali he said that verily he was the representative of the prophet about whose advent the scriptures had predicted. He hastened to accept Islam at the hands of Ali. He presented to Ali an old parchment belonging to Simon, a companion of Jesus Christ on which was recorded a prophesy about the advent of the last prophet. The parchment also foretold of the lifting of the stone of the well by a representative of the last prophet.
The discovery of the source of water in the desert came as a matter of great relief to the troops of Ali. It raised their morale and fortified them with the faith they were fighting for the vindication of the truth. The news of the recovery of the well in the desert impressed the tribes in the neighborhood and they joined Ali in the war against Muawiyah.
Onward to Siffin
After crossing the desert, Ali and his troops pushed on Al-Raqqa on the left bank of the Euphrates, here they had to cross the river. They asked the people of Al-Raqqa to provide them boats and build a bridge of boats for them. The people of Al Raqqa said that in the war between the Muslim people they would remain neutral and as such they could not construct the bridge for them. Thereupon Malik Ashtar the Commander-in-Chief of the forces of Ali challenged the people of Al-Raqqa that unless they provided the necessary boats and constructed the bridge for them, he would declare war against them, and order their massacre. The people of Al-Raqqa consulted among themselves and ultimately agreed to construct the bridge of boats for the army of Ali to cross the river.
After crossing the river, the troops of Ali advanced along the right bank of the river in the direction of Aleppo. Here they came across the Syrian vanguard. The Syrians did not risk a skirmish with the forces of Ali and withdrew precipitately.
At Sur-Rum, along the borders of Syria, the Alid forces had a skirmish with the Syrian guards. The Syrians suffered defeat and retreated. Thereafter the forces of Ali reached the plain of Siffin, where they found the Syrian forces under Muawiyah drawn up in strength and waiting for them.
Muawiyah's command of water supply
As the troops of Ali arrived in the valley of Siffin, it was found that the forces of Muawiyah had already occupied the best part of the valley. There was only one source of water supply in the valley, and Muawiyah had so arrayed his forces that they controlled the water supply of the whole valley, and the troops of Ali had no access to water at any place. The strategy of Muawiyah obviously was to force a defeat on Ali by exposing his troops to the rigors of thirst.
Negotiation for access to water supply
The first task of Ali was to gain an access to the source of water supply. Ali sent a letter to Muawiyah through a delegation. Ali pointed out to Muawiyah that according to the injunctions of Islam as well as according to the rules of warfare, access to water supply could not be denied to the combatants. Ali observed that any armed conflict between the two rides would lead to great loss of life on both the sides. He was therefore keen that the disputes between the two sides should be decided through peaceful negotiations. He added that he was not going to lead an attack unless all possibilities of peace had been exhausted. He brought home the point that in this context it was necessary that both the sides should have equal opportunities of access to water, and the area around the source of water supply should be declared a neutral zone. On receiving the letter of Ali, Muawiyah called his council of war. 'Amr b Al Aas the Commander-in-Chief of the forces of Muawiyah observed that according to the rules of warfare access to water had to be provided to the combatants from both the sides. He suggested that while maintaining over all control over the source of water supply they should allow the men of the forces of Ali to obtain water for their needs at specified hours subject to terms which might be mutually agreed upon.
Abdullah b Abi Sirah, a former Governor of Egypt, and a foster brother of Othman suggested that they should adopt the tactics of delay by neither providing access to the water supply to the other side, nor refusing to do so. He was of the view that because of such delay the forces of Ali would have no option but to retreat from the valley, and when they were on a retreat they could be attacked in the rear.
Some counselors of Muawiyah held that they were seeking vengeance for the blood of Othman. The rebels had denied access to water to Othman. It was accordingly necessary that those who had subjected Othman to the rigors of thirst should likewise be subjected to the suffering. Muawiyah gave an evasive reply to the delegation that he had received from Ali. He did not refuse the demand outright, but did not accept it either. His game was to play for time. In the meantime, he sent reinforcements for his troops that guarded the source of water supply.
Battle for water
When the delegation of Ali returned from Muawiyah, Ali called for his own council of war. After deliberations it was decided that an immediate attack should be made to gain control of the source of water supply. In the action that followed there was hard fighting with lances and swords. Some persons were killed from both the sides, but ultimately the forces of Ali had the upper hand, and they dislodged the Syrians from all the points commanding access to the source of water supply.
Now the position was reversed, and Muawiyah had to approach Ali to allow the Syrians access to the source of water supply. Some of the counselors of Ali advised him to pay the Syrians in their own coin, and to refuse them access to the source of water supply. Ali overruled them saying that Islam did not permit them to stop the supply of water to their enemy. He said that he had to be guided by the Book of God, and he could not act in the way the people acted during the Age of Ignorance. While the troops of Ali maintained the over all control of the source of water supply, the troops of Muawiyah were allowed to have the water they needed at specified hours. During such hours men from both the sides came in contact, and the general feeling was that instead of resorting to an armed conflict, the disputes between the two sides should be settled through peaceful means.
The Armies
The armies that lay in camp at Siffin facing each other were the largest armies so far assembled in the history of Islam. The irony was that such large armies had not been assembled to fight against the non-Muslims in the name of God. The misfortune was that the Muslims were arrayed to fight against the Muslims and each side claimed that it had taken the field for cause. Nevertheless both the sides wished to gain the end they had in view without an armed conflict. Ali instructed his men that they should not fire the first shot. Muawiyah likewise hesitated to take the initiative in beginning the war. With such large concentration of troops at one place, absolute peace was out of question. Isolated skirmishes took place every now and then leading to loss of life on both the sides. There was however no direct clash between the armies as a whole. For over two months the armies as whole remained quiet and in a state of suspense being officially neither at war, nor at peace. Then came the month of Moharrum and during this month the hostilities were officially suspended.
Overtures for peace
During these months peace, overtures were made, and peace missions were exchanged between the two sides almost everyday. The missions that were sent by Ali to Muawiyah tried to make out the point that Muawiyah should fear God, and refrain from creating dissentions among the Muslims. He was told that as Ali had been elected as the Caliph, it was his bounden duty to owe allegiance to him. It was also pointed out that in view of his learning, piety, relationship with the Holy Prophet, services to Islam, and other extraordinary qualities of head and heart, he was the most suitable person to be the Caliph of the Muslims. The stand of Muawiyah was that the election of Ali was irregular as it had been held under the pressure of the rebels. He accused Ali of involvement in the murder of Othman. He observed that he was the cousin of Othman, and according to the injunctions of Islam it was incumbent on him to seek "Qasas" for the murder of Othman.
To the charges of Muawiyah, the emissaries of Ali maintained that the election of Ali had been elected by all the citizens of Madina. All previous regular elections of the Caliphs had been held by the people of Madina, and in the case of the election of Ali the electorate was the same. The rebels did not exercise pressure on the people of Madina to elect a particular person; their pressure was only to the extent that they should elect some person as the Caliph. The claims of all the eligible candidates were duly considered, and by general consensus, Ali was superior to all of them. In fact all other candidates had withdrawn their claims. If any, Muawiyah's contention was that Ali's election was vitiated because of his involvement in the murder of Othman. The emissaries of Ali observed that this accusation was false. Ali was neither directly nor indirectly involved in the assassination of Othman. As a matter of fact, Ali had tried his best to support Othman. They emphatically pointed out that to levy such a charge on a person of the caliber of Ali was sheer sacrilege. Muawiyah maintained that if Ali had supported Othman sincerely, the tragedy would have been avoided. The emissaries of Ali posed the question: You were entrenched in power in Syria, and you had an army at your disposal. You were fully aware of the difficulties of the situation. Why did you not take proper steps to defend Othman." Muawiyah had no satisfactory reply to this question. The emissaries of Ali thereafter posed another question: "During the last days of the siege of his home, Othman had asked the provincial governors including yourself to send him aid against the rebels. Why did you and the provincial governors not send the aid. Are you then not indirectly responsible for the assassination of Othman." Muawiyah had no answer to this question as well and that led to the exchange of hot and bitter words between Muawiyah and the emissaries of Ali.
The emissaries of Ali asked a further question: You say that if Ali had supported Othman the tragedy would have been avoided. Did Ali have any force at his disposal. If you who had a large army at your disposal could not avert the tragedy, how could Ali who had no force at his disposal avert the tragedy." Muawiyah said that if Ali was not involved in the murder of Othman he should hand over these murderers to him. The missions sent by Ali pointed out that the proper way to ask for Qasas was that he should offer the oath of allegiance to Ali and thereafter file a claim for Qasas before him. The delegates brought home to Muawiyah the fallacy in his stand. If his demand for Qasas was genuine he should have strengthened the hands of Ali to enable him bring the murderers of Othman to book. By rebelling against the authority of Ali he had enabled the murderers of Othman seek an alliance with Ali. In such circumstances it was impossible for Ali to take action against the persons who were his allies. It was pointed out with great force that the responsibility for complicating the state of affairs devolved on Muawiyah and not on Ali, who would have himself avenged the murder of Othman if difficulties had not been created in his way.
Muawiyah suggested that a way out of the difficulty was that he should be recognized as the Caliph of Syria while Ali could continue as the Caliph of the rest of the Muslim world. Ali did not agree to this proposal as this was regarded to be repugnant to the spirit of Islam. Ali also pointed out that this proposal on the part of Muawiyah had let the cat out of the bag and betrayed his real intention. That provided a conclusive proof to the effect that the cry for vengeance for the blood of Othman was merely a pretext to capture power.
Ali sent a message to Muawiyah that if all this fuss was about the caliphate between himself and Muawiyah, why create dissentions among the Muslims and shed the blood of innocent persons? In the usual Arab way, Ali proposed a duel with Muawiyah. It was pointed out that in that way whosoever survived would be the Caliph. 'Amr b Al Aas advised Muawiyah that the proposal of Ali should be accepted. Muawiyah hesitated to accept the proposal for he knew that Ali had so far fought hundreds of duels, and in all such duels his adversaries had been killed. Amr b Al Aas pointed out that such was the case many years ago. With the lapse of time, Ali had grown fat and unwieldy and in any personal combat he was apt to lose the balance and be overpowered. Muawiyah, however, could not make up his mind to take the risk of a personal combat with Ali and he refused the offer.
Thereafter all negotiations for peace broke down and both the sides began to prepare for war.
Hostilities on a limited scale
When the sacred month of Moharrum was over, and the possibilities of any settlement through peaceful means had receded, war between the two sides became imminent. Still hoping against hope, war on a full fledged scale was avoided, and hostilities began on a limited scale. A detachment from each side was led to fight each day. The battle waged for the whole day and the two detachments retired to their respective camps at nightfall. The following day other detachments took the field, and after a day long combat they retired to their camps when the night set. This process continued for a week. Losses of life occurred on both the sides, but these contests were more like tournaments than battles. After a week the patience of both the sides was exhausted, and the entire armies from both the sides took the field for a headlong clash.
The main battle
The main battle began on the 8th of Safar 37 A.H. The heralds from the army of Ali stepped forward, and shouted to the army of Muawiyah to accept the truth and acknowledge the caliphate of Ali. The heralds from the army of Muawiyah shouted, "We seek vengeance for the blood of Othman. Hand us his murderers if you are in the truth". These calls proved ineffective, and the two armies arrayed themselves for action.
The army of Ali was divided into the three usual wings, the right wing, the left wing and the central wing. The central wing was commanded by Ali himself and this wing comprised some veteran companions of Madina. One wing comprised contingents from Kufa, and the other wing comprised contingents from Basra. The cavalry of the Kufa wing was led by Malik Ashtar while the infantry of this wing was led by Umar b Yasir. The cavalry of the Basra wing was led by Sahl b Hanif, while its infantry was led by Qais b Sa'ad.
Before the war began Ali addressed his army. He said that they were fighting in the cause of God, and the vindication of the truth. He exhorted his men to prove their worth by performing prodigies of valor. If they survived they would be Ghazis and if they fell, paradise would await them. He asked his men not to fire the first shot. The enemy should take the initiative, but when the war began they should not rest content till they had defeated the enemy. The men were enjoined not to turn their backs. They were exhorted to play the role of heroes. They were instructed not to attack any wounded person; not to cut the limbs of dead person; not to molest women; not to kill the aged and the children; and not to plunder. They were asked to be steadfast, talk less and fear God.
Before the beginning of the battle proper, according to the usual Arab practice the challenge to personal duel was given, Ali gave the challenge for personal combat with Muawiyah. Muawiyah did not accept the challenge. Then Malik Ashtar the Commander-in-Chief of the forces of Ali stepped forward, and gave a challenge for a personal duel with 'Amr b Al 'Aas the Commander-in-chief of the forces of Muawiyah, 'Amr b Al Aas did not accept the challenge.
The battle
After the refusal of Muawiyah and Amr b Al 'Aas to accept the challenge of personal combat, the two armies drawn out in battle array fought for the whole day, but neither side get the better of the other. The following day the combat was removed with greater vigor. Ali was in the center of his army with the flower of troops from Madina. Muawiyah had a pavilion pitched in the battlefield and there surrounded by his bodyguard. He watched the course of the battle. 'Amr b Al-'Aas with a great weight of horse charged the Kufa wing of the forces of Ali which gave way and exposed Ali to imminent peril. Ali and the men of the central wing fought bravely and repulsed the charge. Malik Ashtar the Commander-in-Chief of the forces of Ali then led a charge against Muawiyah. The pavilion of Muawiyah was surrounded by five columns of body guards ranged one after the other. Four of these five ranks were cut to pieces by Ashtar and his men. At this stage Muawiyah contemplated fight. 'Amr b Al-'Aas rushed to his side, and advised him not to lose heart. He said "Courage to day, victory tomorrow". With great effort, the forces of Muawiyah beat back the attack and thereafter the two forces fought on equal terms. Feats of bravery were performed by men from both the sides leading to heavy blood shed.
On the third day the battle began again with unprecedented vigor. The Syrians pressed against the ranks of the forces of Ali, but Ashtar drove them back with a good deal of slaughter. Then 'Ammaar b Yasir with his contingent dashed forward from the ranks of the forces of Ali and attacked the forces of Muawiyah with the ferocity of a lion. He penetrated deep into the ranks of the enemy causing great havoc. Bent on seeking martyrdom 'Ammaar fell after he had broken the ranks of the enemy. 'Amaar was a distinguished companion of the Holy Prophet. In the time of Umar he was the Governor of Kufa. He developed some differences with Othman. When Ali became the Caliph, Ammaar was his ardent supporter. He fought on the side of Ali in the Battle of the Camel. About him the Holy Prophet had prophesied that he would be killed by a group of godless and rebellious people. 'Ammaar was ninety years old at the time of his martyrdom. When the people came to know of the martyrdom of Ammaar and recalled the prophecy of the Holy Prophet it demoralized the troops of Muawiyah. Muawiyah tried to keep up the morale of his people by saying that the responsibility for his death lay with Hadra1 Ali who had brought him to 6ght in spite of his old ago. The death of 'Ammaar was a great personal loss for Ali and he felt as if one of his hands had been cut off.
The following day the war was continued causing a good deal of slaughter. As the day wore on, the position of the army of Muawiyah began worsening. Their supply of arrows was exhausted, and they began pelting the forces of Ali with stones. The Syrians next look to javelins and lances. Finally they fell on the troops of Ali with swords. The battle continued during the night as well. In the nocturnal battle Ali played the role of a hero. He stood firm as a rock, and beat back the attacks of the Syrians killing according to chronicles as many as five hundred persons with his ponderous two edged sword.
The ruse of the Syrians
In the actions so far fought, the forces of Ali had the upper hand, and the final collapse of the Syrians was well in sight. In order to avert their defeat the Syrians now resorted to a ruse. The next day when the battle began again, the Syrians hung the leaves from the Holy Quran on their lances and raised the cry, "O ye men of Iraq, should you kill us what would become of our families and should we slay you what would become of your wives and children. Let us stop this sad warfare, and resort to the decision of the Book of God.
As soon as the men of Iraq heard the appeal of the Syrians, they threw down their arms, and echoed the cry, "Let the Book of God decide between us". Ali expostulated with his men saying that this was a nefarious device of Muawiyah to cloak his defeat. Ali warned his men not to fall into the trap, but to fight to the finish. This had no appeal for the men of Iraq. They argued that since they were fighting for the sake of God they could not refuse arbitration based on the Book of God. Ali said that of all the people in the world he would be the first to accept the decision of the Book of God, but he knew full well that neither Muawiyah nor the people around him had any knowledge of the Quran or the injunctions of Islam. They were merely exploiting the Book of God for an ulterior purpose, and it was necessary that they should be frustrated in their object. Ali exhorted the people of Iraq to continue the fighting till they were victorious.
source : http://witness-pioneer.org
