Establishment of the Independent Identity of the School of the Ahl al-Bayt(Part 2)

With attention to that which has been said, the importance of al-Mufid's work as someone who took upon himself the task of defining the school of the Ahl al-Bayt becomes evident. Answering the need of the times and by relying on his own scholarly powers, this august genius took up this difficult, unprecedented, and greatly momentous and critical task and truly accomplished it successfully. This is not to claim that after al-Mufid no one did, or could not, fall victim to ignorance and error in understanding the content of Shi'ism. What is claimed is that the understanding of this school of thought and the recognition of its boundaries and limits became easier for someone trying to find them, and the faith of the Ahl al-Bayt ('a) with its special characteristics in the spheres of fiqh and kalam became quite accessible to researchers without the danger of being confused with other creeds.

  accomplishing this great task, al-Mufid made a number of practical moves each of which deserves to be studied independently. I will make just a passing reference to the list of these moves in the fields of fiqh andkalam.

  fiqh he wrote Kitab al-muqni'ah, which contains an almost complete course in fiqh. In that book, he took the straight path of adopting the middle course of legal deduction comprising the employment of literal proofs (adillah lafziyyah) and the juristic rules (qawa'id usuliyyah) and abstention from qiyas [analogical reasoning], istihsan and other invalid tools (we will discuss this matter later in the subsequent section).

  addition to this, he also wrote al-Tadhkirah bi usul al-fiqh, and-so far as it is possible to make an assertion on the basis of written works-for the first time collected the juristic rules of legal deduction, giving fatwa on this basis (we will speak of this book, too, later on). Apart from these two works, he also compiled al-'I'lam wherein he mentioned the cases where Shi'i legists concur on a certain hukm and the Sunni legists disagree [with the Shi'i position] unanimously and none amongst the legists of the Ahl al-Sunnah has given a ruling in accordance with the Shi'i consensus. A number of the chapters of this book have been the subject of discussion and research on account of the cases of consensus reported. In relation to the definition of the lines of demarcation between Imami and Hanafi fiqh, al-Masa'il al-Saghaniyyah, written as a rejoinder to the objections of a Hanafi jurist about some issues of Shi'ite fiqh, is also a precious work.

One of al-Mufid's original works in this field is al-Naqd 'ala Ibn al-Junayd, whose title is indicative of his role as a determined sentinel determined to guard the fiqhi frontiers of the school of the Ahl al-Bayt, may peace be upon them. Of course, a definite judgement concerning the book's content is not possible, for it is not available to us. But our acquaintance with his style of work, the powerful character of his arguments in religious polemics, his extensive knowledge of the religious sources, his firm ordering of the preliminaries in a discursive argument, his determined stance against Ibn al-Junayd's tendency towards qiyas,examples of which can be seen in al-Masa'il al-Saghaniyyah  -all these lead us to believe that the said work must have been scholarly and convincing in its content and without doubt it was quite influential in discontinuing the said tendency amongst Imami legists.

However, al-Mufid's more important and more extensive contribution in this regard, i.e. the establishment of Shi'ism's independent identity, relates to kalam. In this field, the purpose of this august shaykh of ours was to draw, with his characteristic perspicacity and precision, the lines of demarcation between Shi'i doctrines and the other creeds. This would enable him to stop the doctrinal elements of other Islamic and Shi'i creeds from encroaching into the body of Shi'i doctrines and to frustrate the attempts to attribute wrong ideas to the Shi'i creed which have nothing to do with Shi'ism. That is the reason why during his career as a polemist he calls all the creeds of his time to debate, and engages in debate with Ash'arites, Mu'tazilites, Murji'ites, Kharijites, anthropomorphists, the Ahl al-Hadith, the Ghulat, the Nasibites and representative of other major and minor Muslim sects. But more than any other rival sect, he was concerned to confront Mu'tazilism and its well-known offshoots and devoted himself to the refutation of Mu'tazilite views concerning various issues in several of his books and major and minor risalahs. The clue to this matter is that of all the various Islamic sects it was Mu`tazilism which, due to the resemblance between some of its doctrines and certain Shi'i principles, could be a likely candidate for the suspicion that it was the source of many Shi'i beliefs, or even of the belief that it was the same as Shi'ism with some slight differences. It could lead to the misconception that Shi'i kalam in its entirety was derived from Mu'tazilite theology, or that the principles of Shi'i theology were the same as that of Mu'tazilism. And as stated earlier, this misconception has resulted in certain harmful consequences. In fact, the preoccupation with Mu'tazilite doctrines in al-Mufid's works is a prominent instance of his role as a sentinel safeguarding the integrity of Shi'ism and affirming the independence and originality of its theological system.

  this context, the most important work of the Shaykh is his famousAwa'il al-maqalat fi al-madhahib wa al-mukhtarat written to explain the difference between Shi'ism and Mu'tazilism. As he himself explains in the book's introduction, there he has paid attention even to the differences of these two sects in some common doctrines, such as that of Justice, and their points of disagreement. 

  appears from his statements in this brief introduction that the aim of writing this book was to provide a reliable source of reference concerning matters of doctrine for those interested in the details of the fundamentals of the creed. In this book, he criticizes even some Shi'ite scholars who had earlier adopted some Mu'tazilite views and compromised the purity of the system of Shi'i theology. He mentions Banu Nawbakht in this context. This is the same duty of guarding the frontiers and defending the conceptual system of Shi'ism of which al-Mufid, may God's mercy be upon him, was-so far as we have detailed knowledge-the first standard bearer.

Of course, the work of demarcation of doctrinal boundaries between Shi'ism and Mu'tazilism is not confined to the Awa'il al-maqalat. In his other books as well he devotes himself to this task, approaching the subject in various ways and often, from the viewpoint of style, in a most appealing and effective manner. But in the Awa'il this characteristic is visible in its consummate form In it we encounter cases where there is an agreement between the Shi'ah and the Mu'tazilah concerning a certain belief. In such cases, his treatment of the subject is such as to highlight the independence of the school of the Ahl al-Bayt in respect of that belief, and any doubt that the Shi'ah might have followed the Mu'tazilah in the matter is laid to rest. For instance, concerning the denial of the possibility of Beatific Vision he states: "I say that it is not possible to see God, glory be to Him, with the eyes. This statement is affirmed by reason, the Qur'an states it, and the traditions of the Imams of guidance belonging to the Family of Muhammad (s) are mutawatir in this regard. All the Imamiyyah as well as all their theologians are unanimous in this regard, except one of them who has departed from the straight path due to a doubt that appeared to him in the interpretation of the traditions. The Mu'tazilah are in agreement with the Imamiyyah in this regard and so also all the Murji'ah and many of the Khawarij and the Zaydis and groups of Ashab al-Hadith . . ." (Awail al-Maqalat, pp. 62-63).

In holding this belief, the Shi'ah rely upon their own reliable proofs (adillah) derived from the Book and mutawatir Sunnah, in addition to its affirmation through rational proofs. Accordingly, there is no reason why they should borrow from the Mu'tazilah or some other sect. Rather, it is the Mu'tazilah who have gone along with the Imamiyyah in this matter. Such an account suggests that it is the Mu'tazilites who are indebted to the Shi'ah in this matter.

 , in the context of "God's knowledge of things prior to their existence," he states:

  say that God, the Most Exalted, knows everything before its coming into existence. Indeed there is no temporally produced thing (hadith) that He does not know before its coming into being. There is nothing that can be possibly known but that He knows its reality, and, indeed, there is nothing in the earth or the heaven that is concealed from Him, subhanah. This is based on rational proofs, the Scripture, and mutawatir traditions narrated from the family of the Messenger (s), and this is the creed of all the Imamiyyah. And we know nothing of what the Mu'tazilites report of Hisham ibn al-Hakam in opposition to it. Our opinion is that it was fabricated by them against him, and it has deceived those Shi'ites who followed them and alleged it of him . . . .

With us in the doctrine we hold on the subject are all the believers in God's Unity, except al-Jahm ibn Safwan among the determinists and Hisham ibn `Amr al-Fuwati among the Mu'tazilah. (pp. 60-61)

In this passage, the writer's tone and his recourse to the Qur'an, mutawatir traditions, and reason as the grounds for holding the belief, all clearly suggest the independence of Shi`i theology, although that belief is shared by the Mu'tazilah and other sects.

In some cases, the Shi'ah and the Mu'tazilah concur in regard to part of a certain well-known issue. In such instances, al-Mufid mentions the points of difference between the Shi'ah and the Mu'tazilah so that their ostensible partial agreement in regard to the issue should not mislead one in regard to its detailed aspects.

For instance, both the Shi'ah and the Mu`tazilah subscribe to the doctrine of lutf and aslah. But al-Mufid; in order to avert the possibility of error in understanding the issue and in order that the Shi'ah might steer clear of the error of the Mu'tazilah in this problem, after explaining the doctrine ofaslah immediately adds:

  say that the Help (lutf) which the proponents of the doctrine of lutfmake incumbent upon God is so from His generosity and nobility (al-jud wa al-karam). It is not-as they think-justice that obliges Him, so that He would be unjust were He not to give it. (Awa'il, p. 65)

  in cases where there are isolated cases of some Shi'i theologians concurring with the Mu'tazilite standpoint, he insists upon mentioning them by name or through some other indication so that the viewpoint held by these exceptions to the rule is not ascribed to Shi`ism as such. For instance, in the context of `ismah (infallibility), after mentioning the Imami view concerning the protection of the Imams, may peace be upon them, from minor sins and even inadvertent faults (sahw) and forgetfulness, he says:

  is the doctrine of all the Imamis, except someone who is eccentric and sticks to the letter of traditions which have interpretations contrary to his pernicious opinion in this matter. All the Mutazilites oppose it, allowing grave sins and apostasy to occur on the part of the Imam. (Awa'il, p. 74)

 appears that here al-Mufid's reference is to al-Shaykh al-Saduq, may God's mercy be upon him.

  in these examples, and throughout the Awa'il al-maqalat, is the distinguished role of al-Shaykh al-Mufid, in defining the doctrinal boundaries of Shi'ism, as a vigilant and unsparing sentinel fully determined to define the doctrinal and theological framework of Shi'ism in such a manner that its adherent is not mistaken for the follower of any other creed.

  same goal is also pursued in other books though in a somewhat different way. For instance, in al-Hikayat, the major part of which deals with the refutation of Mu'tazilite doctrines relating to different theological issues, there is a chapter entitled "ittiham al-tashbih" in which the narrator, who is probably al-Sayyid al-Murtada, says: "The Mu'tazilah accused our predecessors of anthropomorphism, and even some traditionists (ahl al-hadith) belonging to the Imamiyyah, who have taken their word for it, claim that we have borrowed our anti-anthropomorphic stance from the Mu'tazilah.  Thereupon he requests al-Shaykh al-Mufid, may God's mercy be upon him, to narrate a tradition refuting this allegation.

  reply, al-Mufid, after speaking at some length about the origin and history of this allegation and after pointing out that the number of riwayathanded down from the Ahl al-Bayt (`a) concerning the repudiation oftashbih is innumerable, cites in this context a tradition from Hadrat Abu `Abd Allah (a). Then he says: "This is a statement of Abu `Abd Allah, may peace be upon him. Now how is it possible (to say) that we have borrowed it from the Mu'tazilah, without the speaker of such a statement being lacking in piety?" (al-Hikayat, pp. 79-81). This deep concern with repudiating the accusations of tashbih, jabr and ru'yah in relation to Shi'i belief is also another conspicuous example of the role of al-Shaykh al-Mufid of guarding the faith's frontiers and establishing the independent identity of the creed of the Ahl al-Bayt (`a).

  view of al-Mufid's concern in the Awa'il al-maqalat and his other theological writings, such as Tashih al-Ittiqad, al-Fusul al-mukhtarah,etc., for defining Shi'i doctrine and demarcating its boundaries in relation to the other theological creeds and sects, especially Mu'tazilism, it can be said that he planned to present Shi'ism as a coherent conceptual system with well-defined and clear-cut boundaries. There is no doubt that the distinctive mark of this conceptual system is Imamate, which puts Shi'sm apart from every other sect, and faith in which is the criterion for attributing an individual or group to the Shi'i creed. It is true that in other doctrinal matters as well there are major differences in respect of ethos and spirit and in respect of some details and subsidiary issues between the Shi'ah and the other sects despite some nominal similarities-as in the case oftawhid, Justice, Divine attributes, and the like-but it is in the doctrine of Imamate that the difference between the Shi'ah and other Islamic sects is more conspicuous and explicit than in any other issue. Accordingly, apart from the fact that he opens some of his longer works, such as the Awa'il al-maqalat and other books, with the discussion of Imamate, he has written numerous treatises, long and short and with different titles, on the subject of Imamate.

 , it would be appropriate to point out that to say that the doctrine of Imamate is a distinctive characteristic of al-Mufid's system of thought is quite different from stating, as one Orientalist does, that Imamate plays a `pivotal role' in al-Mufid's thought. The pivot and axis in the system of Shi'i thought, and in that of all Shi'i theologians including al-Mufid and others, is the faith in the Creator and the Unity (tawhid) of God, the Most Exalted. Such important doctrines as that of Divine attributes, their number, meaning, and relation to the essence of` of magestic is His Name, the doctrine of prophethood and its related issues, the doctrine of justice, the doctrine of Imamate, and the doctrines related to human obligation, resurrection and so on-all of them with their respective issues are based on the doctrine of tawhid. Unfortunately, the Orientalists, and others who lack an adequate grasp of Islamic concepts, make such errors in understanding the intent of some major Shi`i figures such as al-Shaykh al-Mufid. It is hoped that gatherings and discussions such as this one would help in dispelling the misconceptions and revealing the facts. A Western scholar who has written about the ideas of al-Shaykh al-Mufid has at one place expressed the opinion that al-Mufid lacked a coherent system of thought. Elsewhere he states that his system of thought is based on Imamate. As said, both these views are mistaken. Al-Mufid's system of thought has been clearly set forth in his numerous books and treatises, and their pivot-after the problem of ma'rifah, which is a logical prelude to all theological issues-is the issue of the Divine essence and attributes. Other issues, in order of their rank, are subsidiary to it. The issue of Imamate, as said, is the essential distinctive feature of this school in contrast to the other schools and is a doctrine by which a Shi'i believer is identified. Perhaps, it may be compared to the doctrine of al-manzilah bayn al-manzilatayn in Mu'tazilism. Yet, amongst the fivefold doctrines of Mu'tazilism, this one is neither the foremost nor the most important nor the most fundamental doctrine as is tawhid or Justice. But, at the same time, the doctrine of al-manzilah bayn al-manzilatayn is a characteristic feature of Mu'tazilism and the source of its origin and there is no Mu'tazilite who does not believe in it. The same is true of Imamate in the conceptual system of Shi'ism.

  that which has been said, it becomes clear that al-Shaykh al-Mufid, that great genius of Shi'i history, was the first to define and demarcate the boundaries of Shi'ism in fiqh and kalam. In `ilm al-kalam he formulated a coherent and well-defined system of theology from the bulk of Shi'i beliefs and saved it from being confused with other Islamic creeds as well as non-Imamite offshoots of Shi'ism. In the field of fiqh, he produced a comprehensive text setting forth the methods of deduction based on principles derived from the teachings of the Ahl al-Bayt, may peace be upon them, and blocked the way to such unreliable practices as qiyas[analogical reasoning] and such inadequate or primitive methods as were employed by the traditionists (ahl al-hadith).

  other words, he established the independent identity of the school of the Ahl al-Bayt, may Peace be upon them. This is the first of the threefold aspects fundamental to understanding al-Mufid as the founder and originator of the evolving tradition of scholarship pertaining to the school of the Ahl al-Bayt, may Peace be upon them.