The relationship between the Caliph and the Imam continued to improve and finally Omar married Om Kulthoum daughter of the Imam. In spite of these improvements history as far as I know does not record any dialogue between the Caliph and the Imam concerning the caliphate. But the Caliph had several dialogues with Abdullah Ibn Abbass (a cousin of the Prophet and the Imam) concerning the disagreement between the Imam and himself. In most of these dialogues Omar appeared to be satisfied with what took place. One of the dialogues went as follows:
Omar: ". . . The Qureshite community was unwilling to let you (the Hashimites) have the honor of both the caliphate and the Prophethood lest you compromise the right of your community. Quraish chose for itself. It succeeded and made the right decision." Ibn Abbass: ". . . You said that the Qureshites were unwilling to let us have the honor of both the caliphate and the Prophethood. But the Almighty described some people as "resentful" when he said: 'Because they resented what God had revealed God nullified their deeds.' You said that the Qureshite community chose for itself and that it succeeded and made the right decision. Had they chosen for themselves what God chose for them the right would have been on their side neither objected to nor envied. . . ." ( 8 )
In another dialogue Omar told Ibn Abbas the following: "There were high words from the Messenger of God
(concerning Ali). But those words did not constitute a
clear evidence for his leadership nor did they eliminate all
excuses (for those who did not side with him). The Messen ger was trying to give Ali the leadership. He wanted to
record his name when he was in his ailment but I prevented
him from doing that for the interest of Islam. By the Lord
of the Ka-abah Quraish will never rally around him. Had
( 8 ) Ibn Al-Atheer in his hook Al-Kamil Part 3 p. 31.
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he come to power after the death of the Prophet the Arabs would have revolted against him. " ( 9)
In another dialogue the following conversation took place: Omar: "Son of Abbass this man has exerted himself in worship until he had become lean trying to show his piety.".
Ibn Abbass: "Who is that man?" Omar: "That is your cousin (Ali).".
Ibn Abbass: "What does he gain by showing his piety?" Omar: "He wants to present himself for the caliphate." Ibn Abbass: "The Prophet nominated him for the caliphate and he did not attain it.".
Omar: "He was in his youth and the Arabs thought that he was too young. But now he has reached the age of maturity. Did you not know that God never sent a Prophet before the age of forty?".
lbn Abbass: "People of wisdom and good judgement regard him perfect and mature since God heightened the light of Islam. But they consider him deprived and unlucky.".
Omar: "He will reach it after difficulties then his foot will slip and he will not reach his aim. Abdullah you will witness that. Then the dawn will appear to anyone who has two eyes. Then you will know the soundness of the opinion of the early migrant companions who diverted the leadership away from him." ( 10)
In another dialogue Omar appeared to have remorse for the way in which Ali was treated. He said to Ibn Abbass while they were walking on one of the streets of Medina holding hands: Omar: "I think that your man (Ali) was treated unjustly.".
Ibn Abbass: "Amir Al-Mu'mineen (leader of the Believers) give him back his right.".
Omar took his hand away from the hand of Ibn Ab-
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bass and left while talking to himself angrily. Then he stood and called Ibn Abbass. When Ibn Abbass came to him Omar said:
"What prevented the Qureshites from giving him the leadership was his age. They thought he was too young." Ibn Abbass replied: "By God neither God nor His Messenger considered him too young when they commanded him to take the chapter of "Bara-ah" from your man (Abu Bakr) when he was setting out taking with him Bara-ah to announce it in the pilgrimage.".
Upon this the Caliph turned away from Ibn Abbass and left hurriedly. (11)
In another conversation with Ibn Abbass Omar appeared to be milder than usual. He said to Ibn Abbass: ". . . You may think that Abu Bakr was the first one who pushed you (the Hashimites) back. He did not mean that. Something emerged and there was no wiser way for him to take than the path he took. Had he not had his opinion about me he would have given you your share of the leadership. Had he done that your people (the Qureshites) would not make you enjoy the leadership. . . . They look at you as a bull looking at his butcher."(12)
THE DIMENSIONS OF OMAR'S POLICY
The attitude of the Second Caliph towards Quraish and its line of thinking was far-reaching in its consequences.
We can see its effects in the events that took place before and after his reign where it directed the future policies of the Muslim World to a great extent.
His influence was visible during the days of Abu Bakr.
He was the man behind his election and his strongest supporter and the most effective person in establishing his leadership.
( 9 ) and (10) and (11) are recorded by Ibn Abu Al-Hadeed Commentaries on Nahjul-Balagha Part 3 pp. 97 105 and 155.
( 12 ) Ibn Abu Al-Hadeed recorded this dialogue in his Commen- taries on Nahjul-Balagha Vol.3 p.94.
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The following anecdote shows the extent of his influence during the days of Abu Bakr: Oyeinah Ibn Hissn and Al-Aqra Ibn Habis came to Abu Bakr and said: "Caliph of the Mesenger of God: There is a piece of unproductive land void of herb and useless. We request that you give it to us so we may till it and plant in it. God may benefit us through it in the future." Abu Bakr consulted the companions around him.
As they counseled him positively on the matter he wrote a document signed it and the witnessing companions also signed it. Then he handed it to the two men.
Since Omar was not present among the companions the two men went to him to have his signature on the document. As they found him busy applying tar on a camel they informed him that the Caliph had given them a document and that they came to have his signature. They asked him if he would like to read it or they should read it to him.
He told them to read it to him. As he heard it he took the document spat on it and erased the writing. The two men exploded in anger and made uncomplimentary remarks.
He told them that the Messenger of God used to appease them when the faith of Islam was not in strength. God had strengthened Islam. "Go away " he said to them "and do whatever is in your power." They went back to Abu Bakr complaining and said to him: "We do not know who is the ruler. Is it you or Omar?" Abu Bakr replied: "He is if he wants to be." When Omar came the following dialogue between him and Abu Bakr took place: Omar: "Tell me of this land which you gave to the two men. Is it yours or does it belong to all Muslims?" Abu Bakr: "It belongs to all Muslims." Omar: "What made you give this land to these two men excluding the rest of the Muslims?" Abu Bakr: "I consulted the companions around me and they agreed.".
Omar: "Have you consulted all the Muslims and acquired their consent?".
Abu Bakr: "I had told you that you are more capable-
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than I in handling the nation's affairs but you prevailed against me (and made me the Caliph)." ( 13 ) It is difficult to understand how Omar expected Abu Bakr to consult all the Muslims in giving a piece of unproductive land while he did not consult all the Muslims in giving Abu Bakr the leadership. The leadership was more important to the Muslims than a piece of land. However the event tells us of the magnitude of his influence during the time of Abu Bakr.
His influence extended not only to the time of Abu Bakr. It was also visible at the ailment of the Messenger himself. The readers of the Sahihs know that the Prophet wanted during his ailment to write a document to assure that the nation would not go astray. Omar opposed writing such a document and said that the Prophet was overpowered with his ailment or that he was hallucinating. By his objection the Muslims were deprived of the Prophet's document which was expected to illuminate for the nation the path of its future and provide it with security against straying.
PRE-ARRANGED THE FUTURE OF THE MUSLIMS
The influence of his policy in directing the future of the Muslim world can be clearly seen in many decisions which he took while thinking that they were in the interest of the nation. But they were fraught with grave consequences.
The following are only a few of those decisions: 1. He did away with the method of the Prophet (which Abu Bakr followed) of distributing the public funds among the Muslims equally. When Omar was questioned about his uneven distribution he said "I will not equalize the ones who fought the Messenger with the one who fought with the Messenger.".
He allocated to every companion who attended the
Battle of Badr an annual salary of five thousand dirhams;
and to every participant in the Battle of Ohod four thou-
( 13 ) Ibn Abu Al-Hadeed his Commentaries on Nahjul-Balaghah Vol.3 pp. 108-109.
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sands. He gave the child of a Badrian two thosuands except Al-Hassan and Al-Hussein. He equalized them with their father Ali because of their relation to the Prophet. He alloted twelve thousand Dirhams for each one of the wives of the Prophet.
To those who migrated before the surrender of Mecca he alloted three thousand dirhams and to those who adopted Islam at the time of the surrender of Mecca two thousands each. Then he made the rest of the Muslims one category giving them 25 dinars a year or according to their religious positions their reading of the Holy Qur'an and their endeavor in the defense of Islam.
He allotted to the Yemenites and the Qaisites who were in military service in Iraq and Syria salaries ranging between two and three thousands. He made the minimum of their salaries three hundred dirhams. ( 14)
The Caliph was motivated by good intentions when he preferred the early Muslims and the defenders of Islam. He had a very justifying reason in preferring the relatives of the Messenger and he should have given them more than he did because they were entitled at least to the sixth of the fifth of the spoils of war according to the Holy Qur'an: "And know that whatever you may gain a fifth of it belongs to God His Messenger the relatives the orphans the needy and the wayfarer if you do believe in God and what We revealed to Our servant on the day of decisive event when the two forces confronted each other And God has power over everything."( 15 )
However it is very difficult to justify religiously his
preference of the Badrians over the Ohdians and the
Ohdians over those who embraced Islam before the surrender of Mecca and those who embraced Islam on the
days of its surrender over those who adopted Islam later.
We cannot justify such preferences after the Messenger of God distributed the Islamic funds equally among the Muslims.
( 14 ) Ibn Saad in his Al-Tabaqat Part 3 pp.296-297.
( 15 ) Chapter 8 verse 41.
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It was a beautiful poetic statement on the part of the Caliph when he said: "I will not equalize the ones who fought the Messenger with those who fought with him " and it would have been very sound if he preferred the early Muslims by glorifying them and placing them spiritually above others.
Preference in fund-distribution could also be permitted if the funds belonged to the Caliph personally. But it was an injustice to give to one category more than others from a fund owned by all Muslims equally. The allowance with which he preferred the early Muslims was owned by the rest of the Muslims and he took it away from them without their permission.
Had the allowance been deserved by the preferred categories the Messenger would have given it to them rather than to the rest of the Muslims. Otherwise he would be distributing among all Muslims what belonged to the earlier Muslims.
Thus we should either say that the Messenger had deprived the early Muslims from what they deserved of allowance or that Omar deprived the majority of the Muslims from their right in the allowance with which he privileged the early Muslims. Which theory should we choose?
Undesirable Consequences
Whether inequality in distribution was legal or illegal it certainly led to the creation of a new wealthy class among the Muslims. The minority which benefited from the preference acquired much more than it needed for spending.
Thus the members of such a minority were able to invest their surplus money in purchasing and selling properties and in trade.
As a result the Muslim Society was divided into an extremely wealthy class and another class that could satisfy its needs without prosperity and a third class deprived and unable to acquire the necessary food and clothes. However the consequences of this division in the society did not appear violent during the reign of Omar.
In fact the Second Caliph witnessed the signs of the
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evils of this division at the end of his reign when he said with an obvious remorse: "Should I be given the opportunity to do it again I would take the surplus fund of the wealthy and return it to the poor." But time was not on his side. He died before he could rectify the situation.
It is worthy to note that the preferred classes enjoyed what they had acquired and believed that they were religiously entitled to what they acquired. When the Imam came to power and wanted to go back to the method of the Prophet and to return to the deprived people what belonged to them the privileged minority revolted against him. They used all the means at their disposal in combatting him to preserve their privilege. Why not? They had enjoyed those prerogatives for over twenty years and to them they became natural rights.
SUBVERSIVE ELEMENTS IN THE CALIPH'S REGIME
Overlooking the obvious risks the Second Caliph placed in high positions politically ambitious and religiously unscrupulous men from Quraish. This led to many grave consequences after his death.
Ibn Al-Auss
He appointed Amr Ibn Al-Auss governor of Egypt Before he professed Islam Amr was extremely hostile and harassing to the Prophet. He lambasted the Holy Prophet with seventy verses of poetry.
Belatedly Amr chose to become a Muslim after he foresaw through his wiliness and intelligence that the Prophet and his followers would have the upper hand.
The conspiracy of Amr appeared later when he became a leading agitator against Othman after Othman dismissed
him and replaced him with Abdullah Ibn Sarh. He continued his malicious campaign until Othman was assassinated. Then he used Othman's assassination for his own
unholy goal. He became the second man in the aggressor
party which fought Ali the Imam of the truth with the
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pretext of avenging the blood of Othman whose death was brought about by the agitation of Amr and others like him.
The Omayads In
The Second Caliph appointed Muaweyah son of Abu Sufyan as the governor of Damascus. He appointed his brother Yazeed Ibn Abu Sufyan the governor of Jordan.
When Yazeed died the Second Caliph added Jordan to the area of Muaweyah's rule. ( 16)
By this the power of Muaweyah began to grow politically and militarily. During the reign of Omar Muaweyah became important enough to be feared and reckoned with.
When Omar was stabbed he said to the members of the Electoral Convention according to what Ibn Abbas reported: ". . . And if you exchange jealousy and hatred and refuse to co-operate with each other Muaweyah will snatch the authority from your hands." ( 17 )
The Hashimites Out
The Second Caliph did not put any of the Hashimites in any position of power though they had efficient men such as Ibn Abbas. Omar was asked why he did not give him a governorship of a province in spite of his knowledge and capability. The Caliph expressed his apprehension that Ibn Abbas might make his own interpretation of the Islamic rule.
Evidently the Second Caliph thought that Ibn Abbas might legalize for himself or his relatives to take some of what God allotted for relatives of the Prophet in the Holy Qur'an of the fifth of the spoils.
The Caliph seemingly kept the Hashimites away from high offices of any Islamic provinces lest they gain some popularity in those areas. He thought that people of those provinces might glorify them because they were from the clan of the Holy Prophet.
( 16 ) Dr. Taha Hussein Al-Fitnat Al-Kubra Part 1 p.118.
( 17 ) Ibn Abu Al-Hadeed in his Commentaries on Nahjul-Balaghah Vol.1 p.62.
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With his love for God and His Messenger the Caliph was expected to keep the Omayads out of his regime because of their opposition towards the Prophet. He was also expected to give the Hashimites substantial positions in his regime for the sake of the Prophet. Contrary to all expectations the Second Caliph kept the Hashimites out and brought the Omayads in and kept them there.
The Caliph kept Muaweyah in his position in spite of what he knew of his ambition and of what he witnessed of growth of his power. He kept him for the duration of his reign contrary to his method of dismissing his appointed governors and replacing them with others.
The Caliph seemingly was impressed with Muaweyah's administrative ability and his efficiency in policing his borders which neighbored the Roman Empire. Yet Omar used to believe that the victory of the Muslims and their success did not depend on a person or persons regardless of their ability for God aids the Muslims by the power of Islam rather than the power of persons. He dismissed Khalid Ibn Al-Waleed from the command of the Syrian front after he became extremely popular. He replaced him by Abu Obeidah Ibn Al-Jarrah who was relatively unknown to make the Muslims realize that God would help them without need for the leadership of Ibn Al-Waleed.
The Caliph might have been lulled by the obedience of Muaweyah to him. Thus he wanted to benefit from his intelligence and administrative ability and Muaweyah did not represent a threat to him. The Second Caliph had a very strong personality and none of the Muslims could dare challenge him.
The obedience of Muaweyah to him however should not have made him forget what he knew of the danger of the Omayads to the future of Islam. For Omar heard from the Messenger what should have alienated him from them.
He said to Ibn Abbas that he heard the Messenger of God saying:
"The children of Omayad will ascend to my pulpit and I saw them in my dream jumping on my pulpit like monkeys." And about them the following verse was revealed:
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"And We made the vision which We have shown thee only a faith-testing trial for the people and (the men you were shown are) the tree which is cursed in the Holy Qur'an." ( 18)
Omar said also to Al-Mugheerah Ibn Shubah (who was one-eyed): "Mugheerah have you ever seen anything through your eye after you lost it?" When Mugheerah answered in the negative Omar said to him: "By God the children of Omayad will make Islam lose its eye as your eye was lost: Then they will blind Islam until it will not be able to know where to go or where to come." ( 19 )
The Omayad's Reign Was Not Inevitable
Probably what the Caliph heard from the Messenger concerning the children of Omayad made him believe that their coming to power was pre-destined and inevitable.
Therefore he allowed himself to walk in this path which placed the Omayads readily in power. Thus he did that while submitting to what he thought to be a pre-destined future.
Probably his belief that the arrival of the Omayads to the high office was inevitable made him say to Ibn Abbas that Ali shall arrive to the caliphate after a serious confusion then his foot will slip and he will not accomplish his aim. Then he said to Ibn Abbas: "Abdullah you will be a witness and the morning will be clear to anyone who has two eyes then you will know the soundness of the opinion of the early migrants who diverted the caliphate from him.".
Of course the arrival of the children of Omayad to power became conceivable and expected after they became an important part of the Islamic regime and after their most intelligent became the governor of a highly important part
( 18 ) Ibn Abdul-Hadeed his Commentaries on Nahjul-Balaghah Vol. 2 p. 376. There are more hadiths recorded by the Imatn Al- Razi in his "Commentaries on the Holy Qur'an " Chapter 17 Part 5 pp. 413-414.
( 19 ) Ibn Abu Al-Hadeed Commentaries on Nahjul-Balaghah Vol. 2 p.277.
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of the Muslim State. The presence of Muaweyah and his like in positions of power was expected to be an important obstacle which Ali would face if he were to come to power.
As a matter of fact the difficulties and obstacles were steadily increasing and accumulating during Omar's reign and continued to increase after his death until it became impossible for Ali to rule peacefully.
This was not due to a weakness in Ali but it was due to the events which took place before his arrival to power.
These events were not inevitable for those events were made by man and his will and were not pre-destined by God. Had Omar not placed Muaweyah in a position of power or had he not kept him in power Muaweyah would not have become an obstacle in Ali's path for without the governorship of Syria Muaweyah would have been an ordinary man.
What the Prophetic Word Meant
What the Holy Messenger said about his vision in which he saw the children of Omayad reaching the pulpit of the Holy Prophet was a warning to the nation to take a road that will not lead to this consequence. But the nation took the road which brought the Omayads to that pulpit.
The Holy Messenger informed the nation that his grandson Al-Hussein would be killed and that Ali would fight those who breached the covenant the aggressor party and the Kharijites (seceders). He also informed Ali that the nation would betray him. He informed Al-Zubeir that he would fight Ali unjustly. He informed the mother of believers Ayeshah that she would be barked at by the dogs of Al-Hou-ab while she is deviating from the right road.
He also informed the Muslims that the aggressor party would kill Ammar Ibn Yasir.
The Holy Prophet did not inform the Muslims of all these events to tell them that they were pre-destined from God. He did not mean to tell the Muslims that the predicted events were inevitable and that the will of man would not be a factor in bringing them or preventing them.
Had he meant that then the disobedients the sinners
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the murderers the breachers of the covenants and the aggressors would not be blamable. What the Messenger wanted to say was that these expected events which saddened him would take place as a result of wrong choices by the nation or by some of its leaders.
The attitude of the Prophet in forecasting these events is like the attitude of a physician who warns a physically weak person of what will happen to him if he does not take preventive measures which he prescribes to him.
If the patient refuses to take the preventive medicine then he becomes ill his illness would not be a result of predestination nor would it be inevitable. His illness would be the result of his own failure and mis-choice.
The Messenger forecast these ugly events which he expected and prescribed to the nation the right measure to prevent their occurrence namely the adherence to the Book of God and the teachings of the members of his House. He told the Muslims that the adherence to these two elements represented a security for the nation against the ugly events and all deviations of any kind. The nation however did not heed the warning of the Holy Prophet nor could it appreciate the seriousness of his statements and its dimensions.
It took a different road which led to those evil events.
For this I believe that the Second Caliph was wrong when he said to Ibn Abbas that morning would appear to anyone who has two eyes and that Ibn Abbas himself would be a witness and discover the soundness of the opinion of the early migrants who diverted the caliphate from Ali.
The fact is that what happened to Ali did not prove the soundness of the opinion of the early migrants. Rather it proved that they had committed a costly and terrible mistake. Had they not diverted the caliphate from Ali after the death of the Holy Prophet the clouds would not have accumulated in his horizon nor could those obstacles and difficulties have accumulated in his road.
Ali could have arrived to a peaceful reign even after the caliphate was diverted from him twice. Had the Second Caliph used his tremendous influence in taming the Qure-
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shites and directing them towards Ali Ali would have achieved his goal. Had he kept the Omayads out of his regime and avoided the creation of the preferred class of early companions through his inequal distribution of public funds Ali would not have had serious problems.
Even after all these events took place Ali could have had a peaceful rule if Omar had named him as a successor or formed the Electoral Convention of members with a positive attitude towards Ali rather than Othman. Had Ali succeeded in coming to power peacefully the Muslims would have been avoided all the faith-testing crises to which the death of Othman led.
The Electoral Convention
The Second Caliph was asassinated while praying to his Lord at the Mosque of the Holy Prophet (in Medina)
By his assassination the life of one of the giants of history came to an end. His reign did not exceed a decade yet it was filled with events that changed the course of history.
His life ended yet his influence did not come to an end. He did not die before he pushed the nation to a future pregnant with important events the key of which was the Electoral Convention which he formed while he was on his deathbed.
Muslim in his Sahih reported that Abdullah Ibn Omar said to his father: "They allege that you are not willing to name a successor. If you have a shepherd for your camels or sheep and he came back to you leaving them without a shepherd you would consider him negligent. Shepherding people is more important than shepherding animals." Abdullah said: "My words seemed to appeal to him. He put his head down for a while then he raised it saying: 'If I do not name a successor I will be following the example of the Messenger. If I name a successor I will be following the example of Abu Bakr.' " ( 1)
The Caliph refused at the beginning to name anyone.
Al-Tabari and Ibn Al-Atheer reported that Omar was advised to appoint one after him but he said: "Had Abu-Obediah Ibn Al-Jarrah been alive I would have appointed him. If God questions me I will say: 'I heard Thy Prophet saying: "Abu Obediah is the trustworthy of this nation.".
"Had Salim Moula Abu Hutheifa been alive I would
( 1 ) Muslim in his Sahih Part 2 p. 206.
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have appointed him. If God questions me I shall tell Him: 'I heard Thy Prophet saying: "Salim is a strong lover of God." Omar refused to appoint his son Abdullah for the high office saying: "How can I appoint a man who was unable to divorce his wife or he said does not know how to divorce his wife?"( 2 )
Six Nominees
Once again he was urged to appoint a successor but he refused saying: "After I said my last word I decided to choose a man who is the most qualified to lead you to the right road (pointing to Ali). Then I fainted and in my swoon I saw a man entered a garden. He picked every fresh and ripe of its fruits taking them for himself and putting them under him. I realized that God had decreed something and He will prevail. I did not want to shoulder its responsibility dead and alive. I recommend to you these six men for whom the Prophet testified to be from the people of Paradise: Ali Othman Abdul-Rahman Saad Ibn Abu Waqass Al-Zubeir Ibn Al-Awam and Talhah Ibn Obeidullah. These men should select a caliph from among them. If they choose one you should co-operate with him and help him.".
When Ali and his relatives left the Caliph's house Abbas (the Prophet's uncle) advised Ali not to enter into that convention. Ali said: "I dislike dissention." Abbas replied:
"And you will have what you dislike." However the Caliph did not elaborate on the matter nor did he define the method by which the caliph should be selected from these six men.
Procedural Instructions
On the second day the Caliph defined the method of election. He said to those who were present of the six men: "When I die deliberate for three days and Suheib should lead the prayer. The fourth day should not come before you
( 2 ) Ibn Al-Atheer Al-Kamil Part 3 p. 34. (Printed by Dar Al- Kitab Al-Arabi Beirut Lebanon.)
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elect a leader. Abdullah Ibn Omar should attend your meetings as a counselor but he has no part in the caliphate.
Talhah is your partner in this affair (he was absent). If he comes during the three days have him with you. If the three days pass before he comes make your decision. . . I think that only one of the two men Ali and Othman will be the caliph. If Othman is selected his weakness is his lenience. If Ali is selected his blemish is his jolliness. And he is the most qualified to lead the people to the right road.
The Caliph commanded Abu Talhah (from the Medinites) to select fifty men from the Medinites and to stand in arms on the members of the Electoral Convention insisting that they select a caliph from among them after the burial of the Caliph. He told them: "If five out of six agree and one disagrees kill him. If four agree and two disagree kill the two. If they are divided equally have Abdullah Ibn Omar as an arbiter. If they do not accept his arbitration you should side with the party of Abdul-Rahman Ibn Ouf and kill the rest if they did not agree with what people agree upon." ( 3 ) It is reported also that he said: "If three days pass before they decide on a leader kill them all and let the Muslims choose for themselves." ( 4)
The members of the Convention met after the burial of the Caliph. They argued and disagreed. It is reported that Talhah withdrew from the race for Othman and Al-Zubeir withdrew for Ali and Saad Ibn Abu Waqass withdrew for his cousin Abdul-Rahman. Whether this was or was not true it is well known that Abdul-Rahman suggested that he take himself out of the race and that he be authorized to choose one of two men: Ali or Othman. Othman authorized him without hesitation. Ali did not authorize him until he made him take an oath to side with the truth follow no personal desire prefer no relative and endeavor for the interest of the nation. Abdul-Rahman was Othman's brother-in-law (he was married to Othman's sister Om Kulthoum)
Saad Ibn Abu Waqass advised his cousin Abdul-Rah-
( 3 ) Ibn Al-Atheer Al-Kamil Part 3 p. 35.
( 4 ) Ibn Saad Al-Tabaqat Part 3 p. 342.
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man to choose himself. But Abdul-Rahman said: "I dislike it because I saw in my dream last night a green prairie full of grass. A beautiful camel entered it and passed through it eating none of the grass. Another camel followed and did as the first camel did. A third and huge camel followed and did what the first two did. Then a fourth camel entered the prairie and went on gluttonly eating its grass. (He interpreted the four camels to represent the Prophet and the three Caliphs after him and the prairie to represent the public funds.) "By God I shall not be the fourth camel " he said: "A man succeeding Abu Bakr and Omar will never be able to please people." Abdul-Rahman consulted his friends asking them whom he should choose. The majority of the Qureshites were in favor of Othman and the outstanding companions from the non-Qureshites were in favor of Ali. He met with Ali and Othman separately. On the third day Abdul-Rahman was determined to bring the matter to a conclusion. People gathered at the Holy Mosque in the morning. They filled it to its capacity.
Abdul-Rahman stood up and said: "People the visitors have to go to their own towns. Counsel me. Ammar Ibn Yasir stood up and said to him: 'If you want to avoid the Muslims division select Ali." Al-Miqdad Ibn Al-Aswad another outstanding companion seconded Ammar saying:
"Ammar told the truth. If you select Ali we say: We listen and obey.".
The two companions were contradicted by Abdullah Ibn Abu Sarh who said to Abdul-Rahman: "If you want to avoid the Qureshites division select Othman." Abdullah Ibn Abu Rabi-ah from the clan of Makhzoom seconded him saying: "You told the truth. Should Abdul-Rahman select Othman we say: We heard and will obey." Ibn Abu Sarh smiled but Ammar said to him: "When were you sincere to the Muslims?" (Ibn Abu Sarh embraced Islam during the time of the Prophet. Then he deserted the faith. The Messenger ordered the Muslims to kill him wherever they find him.)
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The Hashimites spoke and so did the Omayads. Ammar addressed the multitudes saying: "O people certainly God has honored us with His Prophet and strengthened us with His religion. Where do you divert the caliphate from the members of the House of your Prophet?" A man from Makhzoom contradicted him by saying: "Son of Sumayah who are you to tell Quraish what to do for themselves?" Saad Ibn Abu Waqass said to his cousin Abdul-Rahman: "Finish it before people fall into dissension.".
Abdul-Rahman Selected Othman
Abdul-Rahman called upon Ali. He offered him the caliphate with a new condition: "Will you pledge to God and covenant Him that you will follow the Book of God the teachings of the Messenger and the precepts of the two caliphs (Abu Bakr and Omar) after him?" Ali replied: "I shall follow the Book of God the teachings of the Prophet and I shall follow my best knowledge and endeavor to the maximum of my ability.".
As he did not accept the offered condition Abdul-Rahman turned to Othman with the same offer and Othman accepted. It is said that Abdul-Rahman offered it to the two men three times and in each time Ali refused the condition and Othman accepted it.
At this point Abdul Rahman lifted his head towards the ceiling of the Mosque saying: "God be my witness I have transferred the responsibility from my neck to the neck of Othman. Then he pledged his allegiance to Othman.
Ali commented on what took place saying: "This is not the first day you have collaborated against us (members of the House of the Prophet). . . By God you gave him the leadership only to return it to you later. God is able to change the situation." Then he turned to both Abdul-Rah- man and Othman saying: "May God plight you with a mutual and lasting hostility." Abdul-Rahman retorted saying: "Ali do not incur trouble upon yourself (reminding him that the Second Caliph ordered them to kill any dissenter).".
Ali left after he gave his pledge to Othman saying:
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"What is written of timed events will reach its maturity." Ammar said to Abdul-Rahman: "By God you have left out the man of truth and correct judgement!" Al-Miqdad Ibn Al-Aswad joined Ammar saying: "By God I have never witnessed anything similar to what has been done to the members of the House of the Prophet after his death. I am amazed at Quraish who left out a man unequaled in knowledge piety and justice. If I have supporters I will fight the Qureshites now as I fought them in the battles of Badr and Ohod." Abdul-Rahman replied: "Miqdad fear God. I am afraid that you will bring about divisions among Muslims." Al-Miqdad retorted angrily saying: "The one who creates division is the one who follows his own selfish interest."( 5 )
OBSERVATIONS
As we have presented the events of the Electoral Convention briefly it would be appropriate to make the following observations: 1. The Second Caliph stated that if Abu Obediah Ibn Al- Jarrah and Salim servant of Abu Hutheifah were living he would have appointed one of them for the Messenger said: "Abu Obediah is the trustworthy of this nation and Salim is a strong lover of God." He refused to appoint Ali about whom he heard from the Messenger numerous statements. None of them were made about any other companion.
Assuming the Messenger said that Abu Obediah was the trustworthy of this nation the Messenger also said: "Ali is from me and I am from Ali and no one is qualified to represent me but Ali." ( 6)
The Messenger did not commission Abu Obediah nor
any one else from among the companions to deliver what he
had of trusts to the Meccans at the time of his Hijrah. He
( 5 ) Ibn Al-Atheer in his Al-Kamil Part 3 pp. 32-35 and Ibn Abu Al-Hadeed in his Commentaries on Nahjul-Balaghah Vol. 1 pp. 63-65 taken from Al-Tabari's History.
( 6 ) Al-Termathi Sunan Al-Termathi Part 5 p. 300 hadith No. 3803.
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entrusted only Ali to do this on his behalf. He entrusted him also to deliver the chapter of Bara-ah to the pilgrims and ordered him to take that chapter from Abu Bakr after he commissioned him with its delivery. Gabriel told the Prophet: "No one should deliver on your behalf except yourself or a man from the members of your House." ( 7 ) The Messenger according to Omar said: "Salim is a strong lover of God " but he did not say that God loves Salim. The passing Caliph should have remembered that the Messenger said: "God has commanded me to love four persons and informed me that He loves them." Then he said: "Ali is one of them " repeating that three times. If the Caliph did not hear this statement from the Messenger certainly he heard from him at Khaibar a much more important statement. The Islamic army under the leadership of Abu Bakr and then of Omar was unable to conquer the fortress of Kheibar. At that serious moment the Holy Prophet said: "I shall give the banner tomorrow to a man who loves God and His Messenger and is loved by God and His Messenger. God will open the fortresses at his hands."( 8 ) Omar used to say that he never wished the leadership except that day so that the words of the Messenger would be about him. The Messenger on the following day gave the banner to Ali Ibn Abu Talib after he cured his two inflamed eyes miraculously. And on that day the Almighty opened the fortresses at Ali's hands.
Yet neither these nor other significant statements about Ali could induce the passing Caliph to nominate Ali for the high office.
Is the Hadith Accurate?
It is very difficult to believe that the Messenger said that Abu Obediah was the most trustworthy of the nation. Abu Obediah was not more trustworthy than Ali or Abu Bakr or Omar. The Messenger might have uttered the words jok-
( 7 ) Al-Hakim Al-Mustadrak Part 3 p. 51.
( 8 ) Al-Bukhari Sahih Al-Bukhari Part 5 p. 171 and Muslim in Sahih Muslim Part 15 pp. 170-171.
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ingly. He might have said that Abu Obediah is one of the trustworthies of this nation and Omar misheard the statement and this would not be unusual.
Omar and his son inaccurately and inadvertently attributed to the Prophet that he said: "The deceased is to be punished for the cry of his family." Muslim in his Sahih recorded that Ayeshah denied the attributed statement saying: "Omar and his son are neither liars nor discredited. But the ear sometimes mishears. The Prophet only said that God increases the punishment of the unbeliever by his family's weeping." Then she cited the Qur'anic verse: "And no soul shall bear the burden of another soul." (Part 6 pp. 230- 232)
Could a Non-Qureshite be a Caliph?
2. The passing Caliph was constantly advocating that the caliphate is an exclusive right of the Qureshites. He repeatedly spoke of that during his reign and the reign of Abu Bakr. Yet he wished to have Salim servant of Abu Hutheifa alive. For he would have named him his successor while Salim was neither a Qureshite nor an Arab. He was a man from Ostokhar. He was enslaved and sold several times.
Finally he came to the ownership of Abu Hutheifa and because his father was not known he was called Salim servant of Abu Hutheifa. ( 9)
Thus the passing Caliph was ready to appoint Salim who was neither a Qureshite nor an Arab. But he was not ready to appoint Ali who was the cousin of the Messenger and the Messenger made him his brother.
The Medinite Companions Out
3. The passing Caliph chose six companions from Quraish for the membership of the Electoral Convention. He
gave them alone the right of competing for the caliphate
and gave them alone the right of selecting the caliph. He
commanded all Muslims to follow them and to abide by
their decision. The nation according to him had no right
( 9 ) Taha Hussein Al-Fitnat Al-Kubra Part 1 p. 37.
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to disagree with them. He added to the six a seventh (Ab- dullah his son) as a consultant and arbiter and that consultant was also a Qureshite.
The Caliph did not admit any Medinite companion as a voter or as a consultant. The new caliph is not a caliph of the Qureshites only. He is the Caliph of all Muslims. The Medinites did not have the right to elect a caliph from among themselves but they had a right equal to that of the Qureshites in choosing any Qureshite caliph.
Evidently the passing Caliph excluded the Medinites for a reason: The Medinites were predominantly in favor of Ali.
Had he included members from them they could have given Ali the edge in the election and Omar did not want that to happen. The method which he chose for the members of the convention to follow in selecting the caliph was obviously steering the affair in a direction adverse to Ali. The six members to whom he confined the right of seeking the leadership and selecting the leader had their own inclinations which were known to the Caliph. Othman was seeking the caliphate for himself Abdul-Rahman was his brother-in- law Saad ibn Abu Waqass was Abdul-Rahman's cousin and he would not oppose him. Talhah Ibn Obeidullah was from the clan of Abu Bakr who were unfriendly to Ali because of the rivalry between him and the First Caliph. Thus the majority of the members of the Electoral Convention were unfavorable to Ali.
Ali immediately noted this when he heard the passing Caliph giving his instruction to the six members on the method of selecting the caliph. When he left Omar's house
Ali told the Hashimites: "If your people (the Qureshites) are obeyed you will never reach the leadership." He
told his uncle Al-Abbas: "Uncle the leadership has already
been diverted away from us. . . Omar equalized Othman
with me and ordered the people to follow the majority of
the six members. If the members are divided equally he
told the Muslims to side with Abdul-Rahman and Abdul- Rahman is a brother-in-law of Othman. Saad is Abdul-
( 10 ) Ibn Al-Atheer Al-Kamil Part 3 p. 33.
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Rahman's cousin and they will not disagree with each other.
If the other two are with me they will not avail me."(10)
Had the Caliph added a few more members who were not self-serving Ali could have won the election.
While dying the passing Caliph repeatedly stated that Ali was the most qualified among the six to direct the nation to the right road. This testimony is in accordance with the statements of the Prophet in which he declared that Ali never parted with the Holy Qur'an and that he was in complete alliance with the truth.
As the Caliph expressed his well-founded confidence in Ali he was expected to tip the scale in Ali's favor by advising the members of the convention to be on his side in case of division. Contrary to this expectation the passing Caliph commanded the members of the convention to accept his son's arbitration if they were equally divided. Should they reject his arbitration the Caliph commanded them to follow Abdul-Rahman Ibn Ouf (rather than Ali). Needless to say the Caliph's action did not correspond with his professed convictions.
Abdullah Ibn Omar
4. We find in the admission of Abdullah Ibn Omar to the Convention as a consultant and arbiter another discrepancy. This righteous companion was according to his father's testimony incapable of making decisions about leaving or living with his wife. A man with such inability should not be made consultant or arbiter in a highly important matter such as the caliphate on which the future of Islam depends.Abdullah's weakness and hostility towards Ali became evident years after his father's death. The whole Muslim
World with the exception of Muaweyah and his followers in
Syria elected the Imam Ali after the death of Othman. But
Abdullah refused to cast his vote for the Imam. The Imam's
reign lasted about five years and Abdullah continued for the
duration of his reign to withhold his hand from him
in spite of his awareness of what the Messenger said about
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him. The same Abdullah was willing later to give his allegiance to Yazeed Ibn Muaweyah. Muslim in his Sahih reported the following:
"Abdullah Ibn Omar came to his cousin Abdullah Ibn Mutee when the Battle of Al-Harrah took place. (In this battle the sacred city of the Prophet was defiled by Yazeed's army and its righteous people were massacred.) Spread the cushion for Abu Abdul-Rahman (Abdullah Ibn Omar) Abdullah Ibn Mutee said to his aides. But Ibn Omar said to him: "I did not come here to sit down. I came to report a hadith. I heard the Messenger of God saying: Whoever stands in open disobedience (of a caliph to whom he owes obedience) will meet God on the Day of Judgement lacking an excuse. And whoever dies owing no allegiance (to a caliph) dies in a pre-Islamic state." ( 11 )
By reporting this hadith Ibn Omar was trying to prevent Ibn Mutee from revolting against Yazeed urging him to give allegiance to the wicked caliph. This shows that Ibn Omar himself was thinking that he would meet a pre-Islamic death if he did not give allegiance to Yazeed. Yet Yazeed was the killer of the Imam Hussein and the defiler of sanctity of Medina and demolisher of the Kaabah. But Abdullah was not afraid to meet a pre-Islamic death when he refused to give his allegiance to Ali the one whom the Messenger "brothered.".
The way this companion understood the words of the Prophet is amazing. The Prophet in his reported statement
prohibited rebellion against a righteous caliph to whom the
rebellious had pledged loyalty. Such a rebellion of course
is inexcusable by God. But Ibn Omar thought that the
Prophet was commanding the Muslims to obey and give
their allegiance to a wicked ruler. Disobedience of such a
caliph is not only excusable by God but also desirable to
Him. As a matter of fact Islam commands the Muslims to
( 11 ) Muslim Sahih Muslim Part 12 p. 40.
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overthrow their wicked rulers and forbids pledging loyalty to them. The Holy Qur'an declares: "You will not find people who believe in God and the Last Day befriending any one who defies God and His Messenger." ( 12 ) The attitude of Abdullah towards these events leaves little doubt that his admission to the Electoral Convention represented an additional help to Othman and an additional problem to Ali.
Does Islam Forbid Opposition?
5. The passing Caliph instructed the Muslims to execute any of the Electoral Convention's six members that disagreed with their majority. If the members were equally divided the party of Abdul-Rahman was to be followed.
The other three were also to be executed if they persisted in their opposition. And all six members were to be executed if they did not reach any decision within three days after his burial and let the rest of the Muslims choose a caliph. This is astonishing for Islam does not permit killing a believer because he disagrees with the majority or with Abdul-Rah- man or with the Caliph. Islam sanctifies the life of all believers. And a killer of a believer is doomed eternally. The Holy Qur'an declares: "And whoever kills a believer deliberately his punishment would be his eternal settlement in Hell: and the wrath of God is upon him and he is damned by God and for him God has prepared a dreadful punishment." ( 13)
If killing any believer constitutes a major crime killing one of the six is a much bigger crime because the Prophet (according to Omar's report) considered them from the people of Paradise.
By his instructions the passing Caliph implicitly recommended the execution of Ali if he opposed the majority of the six or Abdul-Rahman. Yet the Messenger said: "God love whoever loves Ali and be hostile to whoever is hostile
( 12 ) Chapter 58 verse 32.
( 13 ) Chapter 4 verse 93.
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to him." Thus hostility towards Ali let alone executing him provokes the wrath of God.
It is difficult to understand how Omar recommended the execution of outstanding companions or a member of the House of the Prophet for merely disagreeing with him or with Abdul-Rahman. The Muslims used to disagree with the Messenger and he did not punish them. Omar himself opposed the Prophet and prevented him from writing his will and the Messenger did not execute him nor did he penalize him. Was Omar's or Abdul-Rahman's desire more sacred than that of the Messenger? The Caliph probably thought that the endorsement of his appointment received from the Muslims at the beginning of his rule had given him an absolute authority to do whatever he thought to be in the interest of the Muslims. Upon this he issued his stern measures concerning the six members. But this is obviously erroneous.
The Caliph whose appointment by another Caliph was endorsed by Muslims may have the right to choose his successor or to limit the freedom of his electors or to deprive them of some of their rights. But that endorsement certainly does not give him the right to kill an outstanding companion who was declared by the Messenger to be from the people of Paradise for merely disagreeing with his opinion.
Muslims do not have the right to authorize him to do what is forbidden to him and to them. They neither collectively nor individually have the right to kill a person whose life is sanctified by God. Election of a caliph is never absolute. It is rather conditioned by adherence to the Book of God and the teaching of the Prophet and both prohibit killing a believer.
Unheeded Warning
6. Two dreams took place during the time of the Electoral Convention:
1. The dream of the passing Caliph who saw in his swoon a man entered a garden and picked all fresh and ripe fruit taking them to himself and putting them under him.
2. The dream of Abdul-Rahman in which he saw a
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beautiful camel entered a green prairie full of grass. The camel passed through it sparing the grass. A second and a third followed and behaved as the first camel did. Then a fourth entered the prairie and went on gluttonly eating its grass.
Both dreamers understood from their visions that the coming caliph would not be scrupulous about the public wealth. The two men should have been induced by their alarming dreams to choose for the caliphate a man with high integrity who would not allow himself to take what does not belong to him. But the two dreamers did not heed the warning. They took measures by which they excluded the most scrupulous among the companions and selected a man with a loose policy toward public wealth.
History recorded two statements by Omar concerning Ali and Othman. To Ali he said: "What a great man you are! Should you be given the leadership you will drive the nation to the straight path." To Othman he said: "I expect the Qureshites to give the caliphate to you because they love you. Then you will carry the members of your house on the necks of the Arabs giving them the public funds. Then a band of Arab wolves from various places will gather to slay you." ( 14)
Giving credence to this prophecy we wonder how the
passing Caliph favored Othman over Ali. Since he believed
or suspected that Othman would adopt a loose policy
towards the public funds he should have excluded him from
the Convention. Unfortunately the passing Caliph did not
only include him but tipped the scale in his favor through
his instructions to the members of the Convention. Thus
the Caliph did everything in his power to promote the cause
of the one whom he suspected and to defeat the one whom
he trusted. Ali's trustworthiness concerning the public funds
was evident to Omar and the rest of the companions. He was
free of greed and material wealth never attracted him. Unlike other companions such as Talhah Al-Zubeir Abdul-
( 14 ) Ibn Abu Al-Hadeed in his Commentaries on Nahjul-Balaghah Vol. 1 p. 62.
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Rahman Othman and other companions who accumulated millions of dirhams Ali lived modestly. Throughout the days of the Prophet and the first two Caliphs Ali was noted for leading a devotional and intellectual life.
The warning which Omar and Abdul-Rahman received through their alarming dreams should have prompted them to select Ali rather than Othman for the leadership. Unfortunately they did the opposite.
THE UNWARRANTED STIPULATION
7. The stipulation of Abdul-Rahman which required the would-be Third Caliph to follow the precepts of the first two Caliphs was an unjustifiable addition. The duty of every caliph is to follow the Book of God and the teachings of the Prophet. He is not duty-bound to follow the footsteps of any predecessor unless selected by the Prophet. When the new caliph is more knowledgeable than his predecessor and finds some of his deeds or rules erroneous he would be duty-bound to disagree with him.
To put the precepts of the first two Caliphs on the same level with the Book of God and the teachings of His Prophet is a grave error. The Book of God is entirely true and the Messenger of God is immune from error in his religious instructions. On the other hand the first two Caliphs were like the rest of the good companions subject to error. To put their words and deeds on the same level with the Holy Qur'an and the teaching of the Prophet is indeed a heresy in religion.
The caliphate can be based on an appointment by the Messenger of God in reliance on a Divine revelation. It also can be based on an election by a majority or a distinguished minority or on a selection by an elected or appointed predecessor.
The words and the deeds of an elected (or appointed by an elected) caliph do not become sacred Islamic law. Before his election he would be like the rest of the good Muslims unimmune from error. He will remain so after he is elected.
His election does not change his personality; nor does it
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make him profoundly knowledgeable if he had only a limited knowledge.
At best he can be a mujtahid (a scholar capable of forming an independent opinion about the Islamic law). No other Islamic scholar is required to follow him and it is permissible for laymen to follow a scholar other than him.
If the Messenger (in reliance on God's revelation) were to appoint a caliph all Muslims would be required to follow his appointee. Their disagreement with the Messenger's appointee would be a disagreement with the Messenger himself. The first two Caliphs were not appointed by God's Messenger. The first was elected by the majority of the companions of the Prophet and the second was appointed by the first. Neither of them can be considered more than a mujtahid unimmune from error. A caliph that comes after them is not required to follow their footsteps.
This shows the baselessness and absurdity of Abdul-Rahman's condition which he imposed on the would-be Third Caliph. The absurdity reached its maximum when Abdul-Rahman tried to exact from Ali adherence to the path of the two Caliphs who used to resort to Ali as an authority in the Islamic law.
Furthermore it was impossible for any ruler to follow the precepts of the first two Caliphs. The Second Caliph disagreed with the first on many things among which was the method of distribution of the Islamic public funds. Abu Bakr followed the method of the Prophet and distributed the funds among the Muslims equally. Omar classified the companions into categories and preferred some of the categories over the others.
As the two Caliphs disagreed with each other it became impossible for any other caliph to agree with both of them even if he wanted to.
For this we think that the stipulation of Abdul-Rahman was not only an addition in religion and innovation in Islam but also a requirement the fulfillment of which is impossible.
Abdul-Rahman was in fact more kingly than the king.
The First Caliph appointed the Second and did not require him to follow his way. He expected him only to
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follow the Book of God and the teachings of the Prophet.
Nor did the Second Caliph instruct Abdul-Rahman to exact from the next caliph to follow his footsteps.
I do not think that Abdul-Rahman was unaware of the unjustifiability of his introduced condition. He was a prominent companion and he was not that naive. Otherwise the passing Caliph would not have given him such an important authority. The fact is that he added his unwarranted condition only to get rid of Ali. It was difficult for him to prefer Othman over Ali without an excuse. Neither Othman nor any other companion had what Ali had of distinctions in knowledge endeavor in Islam and kinship to the Prophet and of being the first male Muslim. In spite of all these distinctions Abdul-Rahman was determined to give the leadership to Othman rather than Ali in spite of his unequaled record. Othman is his brother-in-law and giving him the leadership is a profiting deal. Othman is expected to return to him the favor by appointing him as a successor.
Ali on the other hand is not a man of deals. His leadership will slam the door in the face of all ambitious Qureshites.
His children are expected to succeed him. They are the grandchildren of the Prophet and they are by the testimony of the Prophet the leaders of the youth of paradise.
But how can Abdul-Rahman favor Othman over Ali without risking his whole reputation as a fair and righteous companion? He needed an excuse and he invented his condition as an excuse. He offered the leadership to Ali then to Othman stipulating their adherence to the path of the first two Caliphs knowing that Ali will reject such an unjustifiable condition. But the veil was too thin. Ali immediately accused him saying: "By God you gave him the caliphate only because you expect him to return it to you later. . . .".
A Justification by Hadith
It may be said that Abdul-Rahman's condition is justifiable by two statements attributed to the Prophet. The first
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is the following hadith: "Follow the example of the two men after me Abu Bakr and Omar . . ." But the content of the hadith testifies to its unauthenticity for the following: The hadith indicates that the Messenger had appointed Abu Bakr and Omar to be his successors while it is a well known fact in history that neither was appointed by the Messenger.
When Abu Bakr was arguing against the Medinites at the Saqifat he said to the Medinites: "The Arabs do not acknowledge any leadership unless it is from the Qureshites and the Messenger said: "The Imams are from the Quraish." Had the reported hadith been authentic he should have used it as a decisive evidence.
Abu Bakr called upon the Muslims at the Saqifat to elect either Abu Obeidah or Omar. Had the Messenger called upon the Muslims to follow the example of the two men after him Abu Bakr and Omar it would prohibit Abu Bakr to call for the election of Abu Obeidah because only he and Omar were selected by the Prophet. . . .
Abdul-Rahman was blamed and accused by Ali Ammar and Al-Miqdad with an ulterior motive in his introduced condition. Had this reported hadith been authentic he should have vindicated himself by citing it.
Again had the hadith been authentic Ali would have accepted Abdul-Rahman's condition. The Prophet according to the hadith had called upon the Muslims to follow the two Caliphs. And Ali was the most obedient to God and His Messenger. Ali's rejection of the introduced condition testifies to his unawareness of this hadith. Yet he was the most knowledgeable in the teachings of the Messenger.
Furthermore the failure of all companions to report this hadith at the time of the Convention indicates that none of the companions knew about it. This by itself makes it incredible.
It is a well known fact in history that Ali claimed that the caliphate was his exclusive right and that he refused to pledge his loyalty to Abu Bakr and continued his re-
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fusal until his wife Fatimah died. Had the reported statement been authentic Ali would have neither claimed such a right nor refused to give his allegiance to Abu Bakr
The Second Hadith which may be cited for justifying Abdul-Rahman's condition is the following:
"Certainly God has put the truth on Omar's tongue and in his heart. . ." If this were true it would be mandatory for any caliph after him to follow his lead.
Probably the Holy Prophet made this reported statement on one of the occasions where Omar had given a sound opinion and the Prophet was attesting to the soundness of Omar's opinion on that occasion. Thus the attributed statement should not be taken as a general declaration for the following reasons: If we take the hadith as a sweeping statement we have to believe that Omar was completely immune of error in words and in deeds whether it is on worldly or religious affairs. But the majority of the Muslims do not believe that the Messenger himself was immune of error. They believe in his immunity from error only in religious instructions.
Another reason for rejecting this hadith is that Omar was erroneous on several occasions:
He was not with the truth when he denied the death of the Messenger. Ibn Husham in his Biography of the Prophet and many other historians reported that Omar said on that day: "Certainly there are hypocrites alleging that the Messenger of God has died. By God he shall return as Moses returned and he will sever the hands and the feet of men alleging that the Messenger of God died." Al-Bukhari in his Sahih recorded that Abu Bakr came on that day while Omar was speaking to the people. He commanded Omar to sit down but Omar refused to sit.
The people left Omar and turned their faces to Abu Bakr
and Abu Bakr told them: "Whoever among you was worshipping Mohammad should know that Mohammad has
died. And whoever was worshipping God should know
that He is living and never dies. The Almighty said: "And Mohammad is but a Messenger; the Messengers before him passed away." Omar later said: "By God when I heard
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Abu Bakr reciting this verse my feet could not carry me.
I fell down to earth when I heard him reciting that Mohammad had died." ( 15)
The truth was not with Omar when he opposed the Prophet while trying to write his will. He provoked the anger of the Prophet and by his opposition the nation was deprived of the document which was expected to illuminate the road to the nation after him. ( 16)
Certainly Omar was seriously erroneous on this occasion. He prevented the Prophet from writing his will and that is a major sin. He questioned the mental capability of the Prophet while the Holy Qur'an declared: "And he (the Prophet) does not speak out of a selfish desire. It is only a revelation sent down to Him)." ( 17)
Again the Qur'an declares: "O you who believe obey God and obey the Messenger. . ." ( 18)
Omar was not with the truth on the day of Al-Hudeibeyah. Historians unanimously reported that Omar argued with the Messenger and objected to the projected truce between the Messenger and the pagans of Quraish. Omar said after that "I still pay charity fast pray and free slaves as an atonement for what I had done on that day." The Second Caliph was not right in setting up his Electoral Convention. His refusal to appoint the Imam Ali and his instruction to the members of the Convention in selecting the would-be Third Caliph brought Othman to power and put the caliphate in the hands of his Omayad relatives who transformed the caliphate into a despotic and hereditary rule.
These are only a few out of many occasions on which
the Second Caliph took erroneous stands. The right word
was not always on his tongue nor was the truth always in
( 15 ) Ibn Husham Biography of the Prophet Part 2 p. 656; and Sahih Al-Bukhari. Part 6. p. 17.
( 16 ) Al-Bukhari Sahih Al-Bukhari Part 1 p. 39.
( 17 ) The Holy Qur'an Chapter 53 verses 3-4.
( 18 ) Chapter 59 verse 7.
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his heart. Thus the two hadiths cannot justify Abdul- Rahman's invented condition.
ALI'S UNIQUE DEDICATION
8. The manner in which Ali conducted himself during the crisis of the Convention was unparalleled in the history of Islam after the Prophet. It was the high example of nobility firmness and adherence to the truth. The leadership of the Muslim World was offered to him and its price was only a promise on his part. He refused to pay the price and turned the offer down because it demanded from him to deviate slightly from his priuciples. No temptation of any magnitude could influence the man of the truth. The caliphate to him was not an end by itself; it was only a means of establishing justice and realizing the ideals to which he was dedicated and for which he staked his life since his ears heard the call of Mohammad.
He was irritated by the formation of the Convention and viewed it as an ominous event fraught with dangers.
The structure of the Convention was destined to bring Othman to power. This would put his ambitious and unscrupulous relatives in a challenging position and make them seek the high office at any cost.
Foreseeing these dangers the Imam decided to try to prevent them by seeking the caliphate.
True Prophecies
History recorded that Ali made two prophetic statements during the crisis of the Convention forecasting the expected events as if he were reading from a book: Al-Tabari recorded that Ali spoke to his uncle Abbas after the Second Caliph gave his instructions about the method by which the Third Caliph would be selected. "I know that they will select Othman " he said "and he will bring about innovations and unaccepted changes. And if I live I shall remind you. Should Othman die or be killed the Omayads will make the caliphate rotate among them.
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And if I shall be living they will find me where they dislike.".
He spoke also to the members of the Convention when they were trying to select the new caliph: "Praise be to God who from us has chosen the Prophet Mohammad and sent him to us as a Messenger. We are the members of the House of the Prophet the source of wisdom the security of the people of the earth and the haven to the seekers of security (against deviation)
"We have a right. If we are given it we will take it; if we are deprived of it we will take the back seat even if the journey will be long. Had the Messenger given us a directive we would have fulfilled his directive. Had he told us to take an action we would have fought for it until we died. No one will be faster than I in response to a righteous invitation or kindness to a kin.
"Listen to my word and comprehend my presentation.
Your leadership after this Convention (if you fail to select the qualified leader) will be violently contended. Covenants will be breached and swords will be drawn until your unity will come to an end. Some of you will be imams of revisions some will be followers of men of ignorance."(19) Both prophecies were realized. Othman was elected .
He brought unacceptable changes and this brought about his death. By his violent death the Islamic unity came to an end. The Imam was elected after him but prominent companions breached their covenants with him after they pledged to him their loyalty. The leadership was violently contended. Swords were drawn and many battles were fought. Leaders of revisions deviation and ignorance emerged and masses of the people followed them.
Expecting these ugly events the Imam was compelled to enter into the Electoral Convention trying his best to prevent the expected events from taking place. This is what made him disregard the opinion of his uncle Abbas who advised him to stay out of the Convention.
Membership to the Convention was below his dignity
( 19 ) Ibn Al-Atheer Al-Kamil Part 3 p. 37.
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but he was duty-bound to enter the race. Had he shied away from the Convention he would have given the other members an excuse for by-passing him or they could have taken his refusal of the membership as an evidence of his disinterest in leadership.
A refusal on his part to enter into the Electoral Convention would have put the Imam in an indefensible position in the eyes of history. It may lead us to think that he deprived himself of the leadership when it was available to him. We may think that he did not do his best to avoid the ugly events which he was expecting .
Furthermore his absence from the Convention could have been considered an irresponsible stand and an encouragement to the members to elect someone else. Thus he would share with them the responsibility of their error.
It was his duty to attend the Convention and remind its members of his right to the leadership and that the members of the House of the Prophet are the source of wisdom a security of the people of the earth against straying and a haven to whoever seeks such a security. And this is what the Prophet meant when he commanded the nation to follow the Book of God and the members of his House and likened them to the Ark of Noah.
The Imam fulfilled his obligation by attending the Convention. He warned the members of the grave consequences of their wrong choice. He reminded them of the right of the House of the Prophet in leadership a right for which the Prophet did not ask his relatives to fight.
History records that a dialogue between Ali and the rest of the members of the Convention took place and went as follows:
The Imam: I ask you in the name of God: Is there among you anyone other than I whom the Prophet called his brother?
The Members: None other than you.
The Imam: Is there any among you other than myself about whom the Messenger said: whoever I am his "Moula " this Ali is his "Moula"
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The Members: None.
The Imam: "Is there anyone among you besides me to whom the Messenger said: You are to me like Aaron to Moses but there shall be no Prophet after me?" The Members: None.
The Imam: Is there anyone among you besides me who was trusted with the chapter of Bara-ah and the Messenger said about him: no one will deliver for me except myself or a man from me?".
The Members: None.
The Imam: "Do you not know that the companions of the Messenger deserted him at more than one battle and I never deserted him?" They said: Yes. ( 20)
The Imam told them all that and they were aware of the truth of what he said. But their personal interests were in conflict with what they knew about him.
MOTIVES AND CONSEQUENCES
9. The Imam endeavored through his logic to prevent the members of the Convention from taking an irresponsible direction leading the Muslims to an insane turmoil which would govern the future of the nation for generations to come. Unfortunately the members were unable to rise to the level which the serious situations were demanding.
They were mostly ambitious and unwilling to forget their interest. If Ali came to power their personal hope in reaching the leadership in the future would fade out. If leadership returned to the House of the Messenger it would stay in it for a long time. On the other hand giving the leadership to Othman would keep the door open for people such as Abdul-Rahman who was expecting the aging Othman to die before him and to name him as a successor.
The members of the Convention were psychologically
ready to bar Ali from the caliphate in spite of what the
Prophet said about him. Why not? The first two Caliphs
( 20 ) Ibn Abu Al-Hadeed Commentaries on Nahjul-Balaghah Vol. 2 pp. 198-199.
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with all their righteousness did that. The rest of the companions were expected to follow them.
As diverting the leadership from Ali at the time of the Prophet's death was unexpected diverting it to him after the two Caliphs had become also unexpected.
The Second Caliph did not view it out of line to give the caliphate to Othman. Probably he considered it a good deed by which he returned a favor to him.
The readers may remember that Othman wrote Abu Bakr's will in which he named Omar his successor. While dictating his will Abu Bakr fainted before pronouncing Omar's name. Fearing the death of the Caliph in his swoon Othman took it upon himself to write Omar's name. When Abu Bakr woke up he asked Othman to read what he wrote. Othman did that and when he read Omar's name Abu Bakr happily marvelled. Omar of course never forgot what Othman did for him.
A New Class
10. As the events which preceded the Electoral Convention brought about creation of the new classes: The Qureshites the preferred companions and the Omayads the formation of the Convention added a new class. Talhah Al-Zubeir Saad and Abdul-Rahman became members of a higher class among the companions. Omar promoted them and testified for their qualifications to the caliphate by admitting them into the Electoral Convention. This inflamed their ambition for leadership.
It made them feel that they are Ali's equals and competitors. This by itself brought about many dangerous consequences. It made Talhah and Al-Zubeir try to hasten Othman's death after they pledged their loyalty to him.
They conspired against him and each one of them was an aspirant to succeed him. This led to Othman's violent death and ended the Islamic unity. The same ambition motivated these two good companions to challenge Ali's leadership later breaching their covenant with him in which they pledged their loyalty and obedience to him.
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The Lost Opportunity
11. Through the formation of the Electoral Convention the Muslims and the Second Caliph lost the last opportunity for correcting the situation and avoiding incalculable tragedies for the nation.
The passing Caliph wrote for himself and his nation brilliant and glorious pages in history. The caliphate during his and his predecessor's reigns took a righteous path inspired by the guidance of the Holy Qur'an and the precepts of the Holy Prophet. But the goal of the Heavenly message was not the continuity of the righteous government for only twelve years to be derailed afterwards from the path of justice brotherhood and true democracy.
The leadership was diverted from Ali to Abu Bakr then to Omar and both were righteous doers. Had Ali taken over the leadership after Omar his coming to power would not have been too late. The nation was still healthy ruled by the spirit of brotherhood and placing its religion above its worldly affairs. It was possible for the Imam with his tremendous qualifications to continue the nation on the right road and to add brighter pages to its brilliant record. It was possible for him to prevent the disunity from taking place.
The Omayad influence started to grow during the days of Omar but that influence was not yet developed enough to represent a serious danger to the caliphate. Muaweyah's provincial regime was not strong enough to challenge the central authority. Had Ali succeeded Omar he would have been in a position to uproot the Omayad plant from Damascus before its roots were deepened and spread in the Syrian soil.
The preferred companions were not capable of challenging the Imam's leadership. Nor were Talhah and Al- Zubeir powerful enough to become a threat to him. They were only two out of scores of good companions.
Had Omar given the leadership to Ali he would have avoided the nation all those catastrophic events securing the continuity of the unity of the nation along with the
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continuity of the righteous caliphate for many generations to come.
Had Omar done that he would have returned to the members of the House of the Prophet their right in the Islamic leadership and protected these most righteous people from the atrocities of the Omayads. By doing that he would have brought pleasure to the Holy soul of the Prophet.
With his great wisdom Omar was expected to take this righteous course. Unfortunately the Qureshite clannish attachment of this prominent companion outweighed his wisdom. This produced the tradegy of the Electoral Convention.
Othman's Reign
The Electoral Convention produced its expected conclusion. Othman became the Third Caliph. As a companion Othman was not less than his two predecessors: Abu Bakr and Omar. He was a member of the fourth ten of the early Muslims (among the first 40 muslims). His Islam was earlier than that of Omar and before his conversion he was not as violent as Omar in opposing Islam. He had a distinction which neither of his two predecessors had: being the son-in-law of the Messenger twice. He married Ruqayah one of the daughters of the Prophet. The fruit of this marriage was a son named Abdullah who died at the age of six after the death of his mother. After Ruqayah Othman married her sister Om Kulthoom. She also did not live long with him. She died during the life of her Holy father.
Non-Combatant
Othman did not attend the Battle of Badr. He was in Medinah helping his sick wife Ruqayah who died before the return of her Holy father from the battlefield. Othman attended the Battle of Ohod and other battles. History does not record any physical participation on his part in a fight at any battle. Like the majority of the companions he deserted the Prophet during the Battle of Ohod. He returned to the Prophet after the battle ended and he was one of the companions who were forgiven by the Almighty according to the Holy Qur'an. "Those who turned their back on the day the two hosts met it was Satan who caused them to fall because of some evil they have done. But God has
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blotted out their sin. For God is Oft-Forgiving Most Forbearing." ( 1)
Othman was not a warrior but he was charitable. He participated effectively in funding the army of Tabuk. It is reported that he brought to the Messenger a thousand dinars (equivalent to ten thousand dollars) to be spent in financing the military mission. He did other charities.
Othman came to power at the end of the twenty-third year after the Hijrah (644 A.D.). His reign started after he passed seventy and continued for twelve years.
During the first six years of his reign the affairs of his administration went well. The Muslims achieved many victories during this period. They were still in a state of war with the two prominent Empires of that time: The Persian and Byzantine Empires. What was left of the Persian Empire during the reign of Omar came into the Islamic Dominion. North Africa was also detached from the Roman Empire to become a part of the Muslim State. The Third Caliph lifted the ban against military use of the seaways. An important Islamic fleet was built in the Mediterranean.
The last six years of the reign of the Third Caliph were full of ugly events. The class struggle between the over-paid and the under-paid started to grow rapidly until it exploded with a revolution whose first victim was the Third Caliph. The events which took place during the last six years were germinated before this period. The seeds of these events were born at the beginning of his reign ot during the reigns of his predecessors.
A Bridging Personality
Othman possessed neither the wisdom nor the determination of his predecessors. Nor did he have their non-materialistic attitude. In fact his personality had two sides
opposed to each other. On the one hand he was an early
Muslim. He accompanied the Messenger for a long time
acquired the honor of marrying two daughters of the Messenger and was charitable for the cause of Islam. On the
( 1 ) Chapter 3 verse 155.
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other hand he was a member of the Omayad clan. His love to them was unbounded in spite of their dark past towards the faith of Islam and its Prophet. These two sides of his personality made the outstanding companions foresee the Third Caliph's potential as a bridge over which the caliphate might pass from the righteous reign of the early companions of Mohammad to the despotic and unjust reign of the members of the clan of Omayad.
The reader may remember that when Omar issued his instructions concerning the selection of his successor Ali said to his uncle Al-Abbas: "I know that they will select Othman and if he is killed or dies the members of the Omayad clan will make the caliphate rotate among themselves and if I am alive they will find me where they dislike.".
It is amazing that Quraish refused to give the leadership to the Imam Ali fearing that the leadership might rest in the House of the Prophet because of their unequaled religious honor yet Quraish chose to make the caliphate rest in the House of Omayad which was noted for its hostility towards the Messenger and his religion.
EARLY OPPOSITION
This was probably one of the reasons which made two outstanding companions Ammar Ibn Yasir and Al-Maqdad Ibn Al-Aswad start their opposition to Othman at the very beginning of his reign. They loudly objected to his coming to power in spite of what they knew of his righteousness.
History recorded that Ammar came out shouting after Othman's election: "Announcer of death come forward and announce the death of Islam. Justice has died and evil emerged. By God if I find supporters I will fight the Qureshites. By God if I find one person ready to fight them I will be his second." ( 2)
He came to the Imam Ali and called upon him to start war against the Qureshites. But the Imam reminded him
( 2 ) Ibn Abu Al-Hadeed his Commentaries on Nahjul-Balagah Vol. 2 pp. 411-412.
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of the lack of support. He said to him and others: "I do not like to endanger you or burden you with what is beyond your ability." Al-Miqdad came out on the day following Othman's elction. While he was walking he met Abdul Rahman Ibn Ouf the king-maker who was responsible for Othman's selection. A confrontation between the two companions took place and went as follows: Al-Miqdad: "Abdul-Rahman may God reward you in this world and the Hereafter if you have sought to please God by what you did. May He increase your wealth if you have sought by what you did a worldly gain."
Abdul-Rahman: "May God have mercy upon you; listen to me.".
Al-Miqdad: "By God I will not listen." He pulled his hand from Abdul-Rahman's hand and left.
The two companions had another confrontation at another occasion:
Al-Miqdad: By God I have never seen anything similar to what was done to the members of this House (of the Prophet)
Abdul-Rahman: Miqdad why are you concerned with this?
Al-Miqdad: By God I love them for the love of the Messenger of God. I am amazed by the Qureshites who claim superiority over other people because of their relationship to the Prophet then allow themselves to take the authority of the Prophet away from the members of his House.
Abdul-Rahman: By God I have tried to do what is best for the interest of the people.
Al-Miqdad: By God you have left a man who is capable of leading the nation to the right road and maintaining truth and executing justice. By God if I have supporters against the Qureshites I will fight them as I fought them at Badr and Ohod.".
Abdul-Rahman: May your mother be bereaved by your death. Let no one hear those words from you. I am afraid that you may have become revisionist and devisive.
Al-Miqdad: A person that invites people to follow the
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truth and right leadership is not revisionist. But the one who drives people to the falsehood and prefers his own interest above the truth is the man of revision and division..." ( 3)
Neither Ammar nor Al-Maqdad had any political ambitions and neither of them was seeking through his endeavor any material gain. These companions were highly commended by the Messenger.
Ibn Majah reported in his Sunan that the Messenger said: "God has commanded me to love four persons and informed me that He loves them." When he was asked who they were he said "Ali is of them (repeating that three times) Abu Tharr Salman and Al-Miqdad."( 4 )
Al-Termathi reported in his Sunan that the Messenger said: "Every Prophet was given distinguished companions but I was given fourteen." Then he counted Ammar and Al-Miqdad among the fourteen. ( 5)
Al-Termathi also reported that the Prophet said when Ammar Ibn Yasir asked permission to enter the house of the Prophet: "Admit him. Welcome the good the purified."( 6 )
He also recorded that Ayshah reported that the Messenger said: "Whenever Ammar is given the choice between two alternatives he chooses the more righteous of the two."( 7 )
Al-Termathi reported also that the Messenger said to Ammar: "Ammar be cheerful the aggressor party will kill you." ( 8 )
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE OMAYAD'S PLAN
What these good companions had seen through their intuition was becoming true. The signs of the future started to emerge quickly.
( 3 ) Ibn Abu Al-Hadeed in his Commentary on Nahjul-Balagha Vol.2 pp. 411-412.
( 4 ) Ibn Majah his Sunan Part 1 p. 53 (hadith No. 149)
( 5 ) Al-Termathi his Sunan Part 5 p. 329 (hadith No. 149)
( 6 ) Al-Termathi his Sunan Part 5 p. 332.
( 7 ) Al-Termathi his Sunan Part 5 pp. 332-333.
( 8 ) Al-Termathi his Sunan Part 5 pp. 332-333.
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The members of the Omayad clan met at the house of Othman after he was elected. Abu Sufyan their old man who had lost his sight through aging asked them: "Are there any outsiders among you?" When they assured him that there were none he said: "Children of Omayad rotate it (the caliphate) among you as boys rotate a football. By the one in whose name Abu Sufyan swears there shall be neither a punishment nor requirement of account. Nor will there be a paradise or a hell or resurrection or a Day of Judgement." ( 9 )
The Caliph of course chided him but this did not change the attitude of Abu Sufyan. He asked a man to lead him to the grave of Al-Hamzah uncle of the Prophet Mohammad and the prince of the martyrs. When he stood on the grave he said addressing Al-Hamzah: "Abu Imarah (a code name of Al-Hamzah) the matter for which we gladiated with each other has become a play in the hands of our youth." Then he kicked the grave with his foot. (10)
He meant that the Omayads and the Prophet Mohammad and his family fought each other for authority. Now the authority had come into the hands of Omayads and the members of the House of the Prophet were deprived of it.
It did not take long before these words were translated into a reality. The members of the Omayad clan exploited the simplicity of the Third Caliph and his extreme love for them. Within the first few years of his reign they put their hands on the two sources of power: The authority of the important provinces of the Islamic state and their treasuries.
The main power and wealth of the Islamic state were in three provinces: Syria Iraq and Egypt. During the first few years of the reign of Othman these vast areas became Omayad princedoms.
Muaweyah and Syria
We have mentioned (Chapter 19) that Omar appointed
( 9 ) Ibn Abu Al-Hadeed in his Commentaries of Nahjul-Balaghah Vol.2 p. 411.
( 10 ) Obd Al-Fattah Abd Al-Masqood Al-Imam Ali Part 1 p. 287.
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Muaweyah governor of Damascus then he added Jordan to his authority after the death of Yazeed (Muaweyah's brother). Omar also appointed Omair Ibn Saad (a Medinite) the governor of Homs and Quinnisrine and Abdul- Rahman Ibn Alqamah the governor of Palestine. When Omar died these two men were still in their posts. But Abdul-Rahman Ibn Alqamah died at the beginning of the reign of Othman and Omair resigned because of ailment.
Othman added Palestine Homs and Qinnisrine to the authority of Muaweyah. (11) Thus within two years from the beginning of the reign of Othman Muaweyah became the governor of what is called today the Greater Syria.
Muaweyah's influence started to grow during the days of Omar. Yet it remained relatively limited in size and heavily supervised by Omar. The size of his area was more than doubled during the reign of Othman and his influence became almost absolute and free of any supervision. Within a few years Syria became an autonomous state within the Islamic state and Muaweyah became the strong man of the Muslim world. Within a few years he was able to put in the battlefield a huge army containing one hundred thousand soldiers. It is worthy to note that Muaweyah was no more righteous than his father Abu Sufyan.
Ibn Abu Sarh In Egypt
Omar died while Amr Ibn Al-Auss was the governor of Egypt. Othman dismissed him during the first two years of his reign. He replaced him with his foster brother Abdullah Ibn Saad Ibn Abu Sarh who remained in his position until the end of Othman's reign. Ibn Abu Sarh was one of the enemies of the Holy Prophet. He professed Islam during the time of the Messenger then deserted the faith. He used to ridicule the Holy Qur'an saying: "I shall reveal equal to what God has revealed to Mohammad." Ibn Husham reported that Ibn Abu Sarh embraced Islam and became a recorder of the revelation for the Prophet. Then he deserted the faith and went back to Qur-
( 11 ) Ibn Al-Atheer in Al-Kamil Part 3 p. 57.
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aish. When the Messenger entered Mecca he ordered his execution. Ibn Abu Sarh took refuge at Othman's house who was his foster brother and Othman hid him. When the situation calmed down Othman brought him to the Messenger asking clemency for Abdullah. The Messenger kept silent for a good while then said: yes. When Othman and his foster brother left the Messenger said to the companions around him: "I kept silent for a while hoping that one of you would kill him." A Medinite companion asked: "Prophet of God why did you not give me a signal?" The Messenger replied: "A Prophet does not kill by signal." (12)
Iraq There were two important cities in Iraq: Kufah and Bassrah. Omar appointed Saad Ibn Abu Waqass to be governor of Kufah. Then he dismissed him and replaced him by Al-Mugheerah Ibn Shubah.
When Othman came to power he dismissed Al-Mugheerah and replaced him by Saad Ibn Abu Waqass in response to a recommendation by Omar before his death.
Saad was a highly respected companion and gained a prominent position when Omar made him a member of the Electoral Convention. In spite of this Othman kept him in the gubernatorial post for only one year. He replaced him with Waleed Ibn Aqabah a cousin and a half-brother of the Third Caliph.
Waleed was a transgressor by the testimony of the Holy
Qur'an. He embraced Islam after the year of the Hudeibeyah
truce. The Messenger sent him to the tribe of Banu Al-
Mustaliq to collect their Zakat. Expecting his arrival
Banu Al-Mustaliq rode their horses to receive him. Beholding
their coming toward him he was frightened and went back
to the Prophet before meeting them. He told the Prophet
that Banu Al-Mustaliq wanted to kill him. Relying upon
his information the Muslims considered a punitive action
against the Mustaliqites. But the Mustaliqites came to the
Prophet and informed him that their intention was to re-
( 12 ) Ibn Husham Biography of the Prophet Part 2 p. 409.
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ceive and honor Waleed rather than to kill him. A revelation concerning Waleed and the Mustaliqites came down prohibiting the believers from reliance on information of unrighteous persons such as Waleed because a transgressor is unworthy of reliance. Thus we read in the Chapter of Al-Hujorat the following:
"O you who believe if a transgressor comes to you with news try to verify it lest you harm people unwittingly and afterward you would regret what you have done. And know that among you is God's Apostle:
Were he in many matters to follow your opinions you would have certainly got into misfortune; but God has endeared the faith to you and made it beautiful in your hearts and He has made hateful to you the unbelief wickedness and rebellion. Such indeed are those who walk in righteousness." (13)
It is evident that Waleed had kept his pre-Islamic mentality for the rest of his life. He remained in the governorship of Kufah for five years until witnesses from the people of Kufah testified that he took intoxicants. He was given the prescribed punishment and the Caliph was required to dismiss him. The situation of Waleed was not unknown to Othman and to the good Muslims especially after the Holy Qur'an called him a transgressor.
It is reported that when Waleed came to replace Saad Saad asked him: "Have you become wise or have we become fools?" Waleed replied: "Abu Is-Haq (the code name of Saad) neither of this is the case. It is the royal authority which some people take as lunch and then others take it as supper." Saad replied: "You (Omayad) evidently have made the caliphate a kingdom." Abdullah Ibn Mas-ood also said to Waleed: "I do not know whether you have become good or people have became bad." ( 14 )
As the Caliph was required to dismiss his foster brother
( 13 ) Chapter 49 verse 6-7 Ibn Husham recorded the event in his Biography of the Prophet Part 2 p. 296.
( 14 ) Ibn Al-Atheer in Al-Kamil Part 3. p. 40.
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after he was scandalized by his own deeds the Caliph was expected to replace him by a companion such as Saad Ibn Abu Waqass or Ammar Ibn Yasir or Abdullah Ibn Mas-ood. But the Caliph did not do any of these. He replaced him by Sa-eed Ibn Al-Auss another Omayad. Although Sa-eed did not have a record as bad as that of Waleed he was only one of the Omayad youths whose governorship did not inspire people of Kufah with confidence nor rectify what needed to be rectified. We shall see later that the events took a turn from bad to worse during the days of Sa-eed.
In Bassrah When Omar died Abu Musa Al-Ashari was the governor of Bassrah. He remained in his post for three or five years during the reign of Othman. A delegation from Bassrah came to the Caliph complaining of Abu Musa's misuse of public funds. Abu Musa was not from the good companions. He once was accused by Omar of enriching himself at the expense of the Muslims and Omar took from him the surplus of his wealth and put it back in the Islamic treasury.
Yet he kept him in his post because of his extreme loyalty to the Second Caliph.
The Third Caliph was expected to investigate the complaint of the Bassrah's delegation and replace Abu Musa (if proven guilty) by a better companion. But Othman did not do that. Instead he took the word of the complainers dismissed him and replaced him with Abdullah Ibn Amir another Omayad youth. Thus within a few years of Othman's reign the three important provinces of the Muslim state became Omayad princedoms. The majority of their rulers were enemies of the Prophet and condemned by him or by the Holy Qur'an.
The ugly impact of their appointment to such high
offices could have been minimized by a firm supervision on
the part of the Caliph. It was easy for the Caliph to surround
himself with righteous and intelligent advisors from among
the companions. He could delegate to such advisors the
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authority of investigating and supervising the administrations of these provinces. Unfortunately supervision was completely absent. The chief advisor of the Caliph was his cousin Marwan Ibn Al-Hakam another unscrupulous Omayad. The power which was given to this Omayad youth is not available to any prime minister of our time. As a matter of fact Marwan was the actual caliph and Othman was only a figurehead.
Thus the caliphate was transformed actually into an Omayad kingdom. To prepare the Muslim world Psychologically for the Omayad rule the Omayad officials advocated the superiority of the Qureshites over the rest of the Arabs and the superiority of their clan over the rest of the Qureshites. They imposed a complete silence on the distinctions of the members of the House of the Prophet in general and Ali in particular. They informed their subjects of the close relationship of the Omayad to the Messenger.
Their historical hostility to him and to the members of his House was not to be mentioned to these subjects who were new Muslims unaware of the history of Islam.
Muaweyah one time met Ammar Ibn Yassir in Medina.
In a heated argument he told Ammar: "There are in Damascus one hundred thousands plus an equal number of their sons and servants. They receive their annual salaries and they do not know Ali and his kinship (to the Prophet) or Ammar and his early Islam nor Al-Zubeir and his companionship." ( 15)
Jundub Ibn Abdullah Al-Azdi once tried to inform the people of Kufah about the distinctions of the Imam Ali.
When he was reported to Waleed Ibn Aqabah governor of Kufah he jailed him and did not free him until some important people mediated for his freedom. ( 16 )
THE THIRD CALIPH AND HIS TWO PREDECESSORS
You may remember that Abdul-Rahman Ibn Ouf offer-
( 15 ) Abdul-Fattah Abd Al-Maqsoud in Al-Imam Ali Ibn Abu Tilab Part 2 p. 120.
( 16 ) Ibn Abu Al-Hadeed in his Commentaries on Nahjul-Balaghah Vol.2 p. 412.
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ed Ali and Othman the caliphate stipulating that the third caliph had to follow the path of the first two Caliphs.
Ali lost the caliphate because he rejected the stipulation. Othman won the caliphate because he accepted it.
Let us see if he fulfilled his pledge to Abdul-Rahman and to the rest of the Muslims.
Neither of the two Caliphs appointed any of their relatives for any post in the Islamic provinces or cities. Othman on the contrary put his relatives in the gubernatorial posts of all the key provinces. Was he by doing this in accord with the way of the two Caliphs? The Third Caliph did not appear to believe that this was inconsistent with the way of his two predecessors. He vindicated the appointment of his relatives by the fact that Omar appointed Muaweyah and men like Muaweyah such as Amr Ibn Al-Auss and Mugheerah Ibn Shubah for the governorship of Damascus Egypt and Kufah. Omar did not choose for these posts the best companions of the Prophet. The Third Caliph could have said also that Omar commissioned Waleed Ibn Aqabah as a collector of the Zakat in the land of Jazirah. Probably Omar also appointed Abdullah Ibn Abu Sarh for a minor position. The Third Caliph was right in saying this. But the fact remained that Omar did not appoint any of his relatives to any high or minor post. Othman appointed his relatives to high offices and gave them authorities without any appreciable supervision.
It is justifiable to say that Othman was not out of tune
with his two predecessors by choosing his relatives to high
offices for the Omayad influence began and grew to a
noticeable degree during the time of Omar. It was only
natural for that influence to be escalated during the reign
of Othman by the factor of time and the membership of
Othman to the Omayad clan. Had Omar been unwilling to
see the Omayad influence grow to that height he should
have kept the Omayads away from his regime. He should
not have formed the Electoral Convention or at least should
have excluded Othman from the Convention. Omar was
well aware of Othman's extreme love for the members of
his clan. Therefore we cannot say positively that Othma
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by promoting his relatives was inconsistent with the policy of Omar for Omar is the one who started the Omayads on the road to authority and enhanced their influence by indirectly putting their relative Othman in the highest office.
Loose Fiscal Policy The aspect in which the Third Caliph was clearly inconsistent with his predecessors was his loose fiscal policy.
It is a well-known fact that the first two Caliphs had led a very simple and rugged life for themselves and their families.
Whenever Omar ordered people to do something he expected his relatives to be the example to the rest of the Muslims in following the order. The Third Caliph on the contrary led a very luxurious life and he was constantly showering his relatives with gifts from the public funds. He privileged his relatives with huge grants while they were less adherent to the Islamic teaching than the rest of the Muslims.
Honoring Exile of the Prophet Al-Balathori reported that Othman gave his uncle Al- Hakam Ibn Abu Al-Auss three hundred thousand dirhams (equivalent to 300 000 dollars) after he brought him to Medina. ( 17)
This man was one of the worst enemies of the Messenger before he became a Muslim. After the Messenger conquered Mecca Al-Hakam came to Medina declaring Islam hypocritically and only for saving his life. Yet he continued harassing the Messenger. He used to ridicule him by imitating his motions. The Messenger one time saw him peeping into his room from a slit in a door. The Messenger came out angrily and when he recognized him he said: "Should anyone blame me for punishing this cursed insect?" Then he exiled him and his family to Ta-if forbidding him and his children from dwelling in Medina.
By permitting Al-Hakam and his children to come back
( 17 ) Al-Balathori Ansab Al-Ashraf Part 4 p. 28.
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to Medina Othman was in clear discord with the Messenger and the first two Caliphs who did not allow Al-Hakam to come back to Medina in spite of Othman's mediation for him.
Othman granted his foster brother Abdullah Ibn Saad Ibn Abu Sarh the fifth of the spoils from the first expedition which Abdullah led in North Africa. Marwan Ibn Al- Hakam purchased the fifth of the spoils of the second expedition in North Africa for five hundred thousand dinars (equivalent to five million dollars). Then the Caliph al- lowed him the whole amount. ( 18)
Khalid Ibn Abdullah Ibn Oseid (another Omayad) received from the treasury three hundred thousand dirhams when he visited the Caliph while accompanying the delegation. The Caliph also ordered one hundred thousand for each member of the delegation.
When the treasurer Abdullah Ibn Arqam refused to pay these huge sums the Caliph proudly asked him: "Who are you to interfere with my order? You are only my treasurer." But Abdullah retorted saying: "I did not believe that I was your treasurer. Your treasurer is one of your servants. I am the treasurer of the Muslims." Then he came with the keys of the treasury and hung them on the pulpit of the Prophet at the Mosque resigning from his post.
The Caliph ordered three hundred thousand dirhams for Abdullah Ibn Arqam after he resigned; but out of pity Abdullah did not accept the grant. ( 19)
Othman also gave Sa-eed Ibn Al-Auss one hundred thousand dirhams. And when he married three or four of his daughters to men from Quraish he gave each one of them one hundred thousand dinars. He gave his cousin Al- Harith Ibn Al-Hakam (exile of the Prophet) three hundred thousand dirhams. He appointed him as a collector of the Zakat of Qud-ah. When he brought the Zakat the Caliph allowed him what he collected.(20)
( 18 ) Ibn Al-Atheer in Al-Kamil Part 3 p. 49.
( 19 ) Taha Hussein Al-Fitnat Al-Kubra Part 1 p. 193.
( 20 ) Dr. Taha Hussein in his Al-Fitnatul-Kubra Part 2 p. 193.
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We ought not to forget that Abu Sufyan the old man of Omayad also received from the Caliph two hundred thousand dirhams yet the old man fought the Prophet for twenty-one years and professed Islam only to save his neck after he and the rest of the Meccans were completely defeated. He rejoiced on the defeat of the Muslims by the pagans of Hawazin in Hunain saying: "Their retreat will not end before they reach the sea." (Ibn Husham recorded this in his Biography of the Prophet Part 2 p. 443.)
The Third Caliph did not only shower his relatives with public funds but he also granted them vast pieces of lands from the public properties.
Fadak a land of orchards (which came to the ownership of the Holy Prophet because it was acquired by the Muslims without war) also was granted by Othman to some of his relatives. Fadak was supposed to be inherited totally or partly by Fatimah daughter of the Prophet but was nationalized by Abu Bakr because of a Hadith in which he reported that the Prophet said that what is left by the Prophets would be charity. However Othman granted Fadak to Marwan Ibn Al-Hakam the exile of the Prophet! (Abu Dawood Sunan Abu Dawood Part 2 p. 127.)
Othman did not follow the policy of his two predecessors concerning the public funds. He used to think that he had the right to spend out of the Muslims' funds as he liked.
He was the Imam of the Muslims and he had the right to do with their funds as he pleased. This is opposite of the precise and strict policy of the Second Caliph who used to exact from his appointees a full account concerning the public funds and ask whoever acquired a wealth among them: "How did you get this?" And he used to return the surplus of their wealth to the Islamic treasury.
Omar and Abu Hurairah
Omar appointed Abu Hurairah to collect the taxes of Al-Bahrain. When he knew that Abu Hurairah had prospered he said to him: "I sent you to Al-Bahrain while you were barefooted unable to acquire shoes for your feet. I
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have been informed that you have sold horses for sixteen hundred dinars.".
Abu Hurairah: "I had horses which multiplied by reproduction.".
Omar: "I shall withhold your salary and what you used to receive of food allotment or you will bring me the surplus of your wealth.".
Abu Hurairah: "You have no right to do that." Omar: "Yes by God and I will hurt your back." Then he hit him with his rod until his back bled and ordered him to bring him the surplus fund.
When Abu Rurairah brought the demanded amount he said: "I hope that God will compensate me for this." Omar said: "That would be true if you had earned it legitimately and paid it willingly. By God your mother did not beget you to reach the position of collector of tax revenues from Hajar Al-Yamamah and the remote area of Al-Bahrain and to collect all that for yourself and not for God or for the Muslims. She begot you only to be a shepherd of donkeys." Then he dismissed him.( 21 )
There is a world of difference between this strict policy and that of Othman who used to give his relatives hundreds of thousands and sometimes millions of dirhams seeing no wrong in doing that.
Other Grants to Other People The generosity of the Caliph was not limited to his relatives. It was extended to others whom he used to pay heavily either as a reward for their loyalty or as an appeasement to some potential opponents. He gave Zaid Ibn Thabit one hundred thousand dirhams. He gave Al-Zubeir six hundred thousand dirhams and Talhah Ibn Obeidullah two hundred thousand dirhams. ( 22)
These two companions were members of the Electoral Convention which brought Othman to power.
( 21 ) Ibn Abu Al-Hadeed in his Commentaries on Nahjul-Balaghah Vol.3 p. 104.
( 22 ) Taha Hussein Al-Fitnat Al-Kubra Part 1 p. 77.
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Neither of these two companions was in need of financial assistance. Both were wealthy with big holdings and big business. They had a great deal of real estate and of liquid funds.
It is worthy to note that history does not mention that the generosity of the Caliph was extended to the members of the House of the Prophet to whom the Holy Qur'an allotted at the least the sixth of the fifth of the spoils.
The Provincial Governors' Policy The governors of the provinces did what they were expected by adopting a policy similar to that of the Caliph in handling the Muslims' funds. It is reported that Waleed Ibn Aqabah took a loan from the treasury of Kufah while he was the governor of the city. When the loan matured the treasurer Adbullah Ibn Mas-ood asked him to pay it back but Waleed did not pay it. When the treasurer demanded the payment the governor wrote to the Caliph complaining about the treasurer. The Caliph wrote to the treasurer ordering him to leave Waleed alone with the loan and telling him that he was only the treasurer of the Caliph.
Upon this Ibn Mas-ood angrily resigned. ( 23)
The Muslims of Kufah were lucky enough to find a man like Abdullah Ibn Mas-ood who had the courage to stand up to Waleed and require him to pay a loan. The Muslims of Syria were not so fortunate. Muaweyah was an absolute ruler of Syria with no limit to his power. He was living like a king handling the public funds of Syria as he was handling his own funds free of supervision. He used the public funds for purchasing loyalty and support of the chiefs of the Syrian tribes and men of influence. He was preparing himself to succeed Othman and he had sufficient time for such a preparation.
As a matter of fact Muaweyah started his preparation
for his goal during the days of Omar. His extravagancy was
evident to Omar himself. When the Second Caliph went
to the Syrian front he was angered by the high standard of
( 23 ) Al-Balathori in Ansab Al-Ashraf Part 4 p. 31.
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Muaweyah's luxurious life. But Muaweyah convinced the Caliph of the soundness of his policy using his proximity to the Roman Empire as an excuse for his extravagance.
It is amazing that the Caliph required Abu Hurairah to give a serious account for sixteen hundred dinars but he failed to ask Muaweyah how he could maintain his lavish way of life.
Muaweyah was not the only governor who used the public funds for his own interest. The rest of Othman's appointed officials followed the same method in proportion to their authority and lack of supervision. All were working for the goal of transforming the caliphate into a despotic rule and the Muslim World into an Omayad kingdom.
This unscrupulous policy had many consequences: (1) The growth of the wealth of the wealthy class in the Islamic society Many of the lucky individuals who received generous gifts from the Caliph and his appointed officials invested what they received of funds or portions of it in real estate and business. This yielded them enormous profits. Many of the companions who were highly paid during the days of Omar became considerably wealthy through investing the surplus of their salaries in real estate and trades. The wealth of these companions was expected to grow by the passage of time. When Othman allowed the companions to live outside Medina (ending the ban which was imposed by Omar on the companions) many of the prosperous companions found new avenues for multiplying their fortunes. They purchased buildings orchards and lands in Iraq and other provinces. The Third Caliph also gave vast public lands in Hijaz to many of his relatives friends and supporters.
Transactions and exchanges of real estates between wealthy owners living in Iraq and their counterparts in Hijaz and Yemen continued and the Caliph encouraged these transactions. (24) Thus many deals were made and the fortunes of these enterprisers were increased rapidly.
( 24 ) Ibn Al-Atheer in Al-Kamil Part 3 p. 52.
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Many of the companions and others became multi-millionaires. The fortune of Al-Zubeir amounted to forty million dirhams (25) and that of Talhah to thirty millions (26 ) and that of Abdul-Rahman Ibn Ouf to about three millions.(27)
(2) The other result of the Third Caliph's handling of public funds was the increase of the pressure on the tax payers of the conquered countries. The generosity of the Caliph and his appointed officials in handling the public funds and their gifts to the individuals required liquid funds which could not come but through overtaxation of the conquered nations. This aspect is not mentioned clearly in our history because the conquered nations did not have political power or voice.
A dialogue between the Caliph and Amr Ibn Al-Auss (who was once the governor of Egypt and was replaced by Abdullah Ibo Abu Sarh) reveals the mounting pressure on the conquered nations. The Caliph said to Amr: "The camels are giving much more milk after you left." (He meant that more funds were coming from Egypt after his dismissal.) And Amr replied: "yes but their babies have perished!" (He meant that by exacting more taxes from the Egyptians the Egyptians were being impoverished.)(28)
THE GROWTH OF OPPOSITION
Early opposition to the Third Caliph had started at the beginning of his reign by Ammar Ibn Yassir and Al- Miqdad Ibn Al-Aswad who were outstanding companions and free of any political or material ambitions. That opposition was calmed during the first few years of the Third Caliph's reign due to the lack of support by the public and because what they expected to happen did not happen during the early period of his reign.
However the events which took place later contributed to the rapid growth of the opposition. The motive behind
( 25 ) Ibn Saad in his Al-Tabaqat Part 3 p. 110.
( 26 ) Ibn Saad Al-Tabaqat Part 3 p. 222.
( 27 ) Ibn Saad Al-Tabaqat Part 3 p. 126.
( 28 ) Al-Fitnat Al-Kubra Part 1.
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the oppositions was either religious or political and sometimes it was both.
Abdul-Rahman Ibn Ouf the one who selected Othman and brought him to power was one of the early critics of the Caliph. He was displeased to see his selected Caliph following a policy opposed to that of the first two Caliphs in spite of his pledge at the time of his selection to follow their policy. No doubt many companions blamed Abdul- Rahman for selecting Othman and depriving Ali of the caliphate. They held him responsible for the Caliph's policy in handling the public funds and imposing the authority of the Omayads on the Muslims.
Abdul-Rahman changed his heart towards his man and turned 180 degrees from the Caliph's extreme supporter to the Caliph's hostile critic.
The road which Othman took probably showed Abdul- Rahman that the caliphate would continue in the Omayads after the death of Othman. The relatives of the Caliph had become very powerful and capable of keeping the caliphate in their clan. With their unlimited influence on the Caliph's mind they were in a position to convince him to make one of them his successor. Thus Abdul-Rahman belatedly discovered that he was maintaining a false hope of becoming Othman's successor.
We may remember that Ali told Abdul-Rahman after he selected Othman: "By God you gave him the leadership only to return it to you. May God plight you and him with a reciprocal and constant animosity!!!".
If Abdul-Rahman had a good memory he could recall the warning which he received in his dream during the days of the Electoral Convention. He dreamt of a green prairie into which a beautiful camel entered and passed through without touching it. It was followed by two camels one after another and they followed its behavior. Then a fourth camel came and ate all he could from the grass of the prairie. Abdul-Rahman interpreted his dream by thinking that the fourth camel would be the third caliph who would not follow the precepts of the Prophet and the first two caliphs in handling the public funds.
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Because of this dream Abdul-Rahman did not want to be the third caliph lest he would be the fourth camel. Had Abdul-Rahman remembered that vision he would have realized that he did not heed the warning which it contained. He would have realized that he had chosen the man whom he should have left out and left out the man whom he should have cbosen. Had he selected Ali he would have avoided the nation all the tragic events that took place later.
You may recall that Omar also saw in his dream that a man entered a garden and picked every fresh and ripe fruit taking them to himself and putting them under him. The two visions resembled each other and so did the responses of the two dreamers. Both chose the picker and the gluttonous eater.
Two Other Members of the Convention Talhah and Al-Zubeir who were also members of the Electoral Convention joined the opposition. Al-Zubeir was less violent in his opposition than Talhah.
It is difficult to believe that the two companions opposed Othman because of his mishandling of the public funds. Of course the Caliph granted his relatives huge sums of money but the two companions also had their big shares of his generosity. The share of Al-Zubeir was six hundred thousand dirhams and Talhah received two hundred thousand dirhams. They could not disallow the Caliph's grant to his relatives while legalizing it for themselves.
It seems that both men were aspirants to succeed Othman. When Omar granted them candidacy to the high office in the Electoral Convention he actually qualified them for leadership. The enormous wealth of the two companions enhanced their importance in their own eyes and in the eyes of many Muslims. Tallah gained numerous supporters in Bassrah and so did Al-Zubeir in Kufah. Like Abdul-Rahman the two companions were frightened by the rapid growth of the Omayads' power which made them capable of competing with any companion for the leadership.
It was disturbing to them to think that Othman might
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appoint Muaweyah or another Omayad as a successor.
The turn of events indicated that the Omayads would keep the caliphate in their clan blocking the road of other Qureshites to the high office. The two companions realized that silence would contribute to the Omayads' success in achieving their goal. For this they decided to oppose the Caliph and try to end his reign before he chose an Omayad successor. This would enable one of the two companions to succeed the Caliph.
Ayeshah Ayeshah wife of the Prophet also joined the opposition. She became an open critic of Othman accusing him of taking a direction opposite to that of the Prophet. She occasionally displayed a garment of the Prophet saying that the garment of the Prophet had not yet deteriorated but Othman had brought the precepts of the Prophet into deterioration. She used to call him Naathal (a heavily bearded Jew). The historians recorded that she used to say: "Kill Naathal because he deserted the faith."(29)
It seems that her motive was merely political rather than religious. She could not be angered by Othman's violation of the Islamic Law because she allowed herself to commit a much bigger violation of God's commandments.
She opposed Ali who was the most adherent to the Book of God and the precepts of the Prophet. She was more violent in her opposition to the brother of the Messenger than in her opposition to Othman. She criticized Othman because he injured some of the companions and mishandled the Muslims' funds yet she waged a war in which thousands of Muslims lost their lives. Killing the Muslims is a much bigger sin than injuring them or usurping some of their funds.
Her motive in opposing Othman was identical to that of Talhah and Al-Zubeir. She wanted her cousin Talhah
( 29 ) Al-Tabari History of Messengers and Kings about the events of the year 36 p. 3112 and Ibn Al-Atheer in Al-Kamil Part 3 p. 102.
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or her brother-in-law Al-Zubeir to succeed Othman. The growth of Talhah's influence in his opposition to the Caliph was extremely pleasing to her.
Al-Tabari reported that Ayeshah said to Ibn Abbas: "You are a man of understanding wisdom and expression.
I ask you by God not to detract people from Talhah. The situation of Othman has become obvious. People from various cities have gathered for a great event which is about to take place. I am informed that Talhah is already in control of the houses of the public funds and possesses their keys. I think that he God willing will follow the path of his cousin Abu Bakr." Ibn Abbas retorted saying:
"Mother if anything happens to Othman people will resort to our man (Ali)." Ayeshah of course did not agree with him but she said to him: "Ibn Abbas I do not want to antagonize you or argue with you." ( 30 )
She was looking at the events with the eyes of Talhah and Al-Zubeir. Her hope that one of the two men would reach the caliphate through co-operation with Othman was withering gradually by the rapid growth of the Omayads' power and the continuation of Othman in his office. It became evident to her and the two companions that the Caliph would follow only the advice of people such as Marwan and Muaweyah and that these advisers would counsel him to choose an Omayad successor.
Ayeshah and the two companions thought that their silence would render an assistance to the Omayads in fulfilling their goal. For this the two companions raised their voices against the Caliph and Ayeshah called upon the Muslims to kill him.
Amr Ibn Al-Auss
Amr Ibn Al-Auss joined the opposition. This politician
did not have the ambition to become a caliph. He was not
from the early companions or a member of the Electoral
Convention nor did he have the needed influence to make
( 30 ) Ibn Abu Al-Hadeed Commentaries on Nahjul-Balaghah Vol.2 p. 506.
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him ambitious to reach the high office. His opposition was motivated by the desire to avenge himself. He was the governor of Egypt during the days of Omar. He wanted to stay in his post but Othman dismissed him and replaced him by Adbullah Ibn Saad Ibn Abu Sarh. He came back to Medina waiting for the opportunity to jump the Caliph.
When Ayeshah and others started their campaign against Othman Amr became a noted agitator. He used his intelligence and wiliness in instigating people against the Caliph. ( 31)
When Othman was killed Amr joined the seekers of the revenge for Othman's blood because Muaweyah promised him the governorship of Egypt.
OPPOSITION FROM NON-QURESHITE COMPANIONS
The Qureshite companions were mostly politically motivated in their opposition to Othman. The opposition that was religiously motivated came from outstanding non-Qureshite companions. Most noted among these in the history of that period was:
Abu Thrr
When the third Caliph granted his cousin Marwan five
million dirhams and Zeid Ibn Thabit one hundred thousand
dirhams and Harith Marwan's brother three hundred
thousand dirhams Abu Tharr raised his voice repeatedly
reciting the following Qur'anic verse: "Give the news of a
painful punishment to those who treasure gold and silver
and do not spend them in the way of God." Othman sent
his messengers to Abu Tharr prohibiting him from such a
recital. Abu Tharr protested saying: "Does Othman want
to prevent me from reciting the Book of God and denouncing those who disobey the commandment of God? By God
it is more desirable to me and better for me to please God
by displeasing Othman rather than displeasing God by
( 31 ) Ibn Al-Atheer Al-Kamil Part 3 p. 82.
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pleasing Othman." (32) This attitude angered Othman.
It was not difficult for Othman to solve the problem of Abu Tharr and all other critics and Abu Tharr himself prescribed to Othman the solution of the problem. He told him one day: "Follow the path of your two predecessors and no one will criticize you." But the Caliph was not of this opinion. He wanted to solve the problem by punishing whomever he could. Evidently he did not know that medicating the problem of sincere criticism by violence is bound to bring him bigger problems.
Abu Tharr in Exile It was difficult for the Caliph to punish the Qureshite critics. They were too powerful for him to punish. Abu Tharr and others like him in spite of their brilliant Islamic record were neither powerful nor wealthy. The Caliph chose for these good companions a kind of punishment which was inappropriate and inapplicable to them. He chose for Abu Tharr punishment by exile which is prescribed by the Holy Qur'an for those who are at war with God and His Messenger and the makers of mischief in the land. Abu Tharr was not one of these. He was rather a righteous companion whose motives were prohibiting evil and enjoining good. He did not challenge the authority of the Caliph nor did he call for a revolt against him.
The Messenger of God was criticized by a hypocrite who told him: "You ought to be just in distributing the spoils among Muslims." The Prophet did not exile him nor did he punish him. He only said to him: "Woe to you. If I do not execute justice who will?"
Abu Bakr said to his electors: "Obey me as long as I obey God. If I do not obey Him you owe me no obedience."
Omar used to say: "When you see a crookedness in me try to straighten me."
Abu Tharr and Muaweyah Othman did not take the attitude of his predecessors.
( 32 ) Ibn Abu Al-Hadeed Commentaries on Nahjul-Balaghah Vol. 1 p. 240.
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He exiled Abu Tharr to Syria placing him under the authority of Muaweyah who was actually a government within the government. Seeing the extravagancy of Muaweyah and his mishandling of the public funds Abu Tharr raised his voice against him. When Muaweyah built his famous palace called Al-Khadra Abu Tharr said to him: "If this is from the Muslims' fund it is a theft. If it is from your own fund it is an extravagancy." Abu Tharr used to shout at the door of Muaweyah saying: "God may Thou curse those who enjoin good and do not do it. May Thou curse those who prohibit evil and do it.".
Permanent Exile This irritated Muaweyah. He complained about Abu Tharr to the Caliph. The Caliph recalled Abu Tharr to Medina and he was returned to it in a very unmerciful way. (33) When he arrived in Medina the Caliph found him persisting in his critical attitude towards his regime. For this he ordered him to leave Medina. Abu Tharr asked his permission to go back to Damascus or to go to Iraq or Egypt or to Mecca according to some reports. The Caliph did not permit him to do so. He ordered him to go to the desert of Najd saying to him: "Go in this direction and do not go beyond Al-Rabathah.".
The Caliph ordered people not to speak to Abu Tharr nor give him a send off. When Abu Tharr was departing Marwan went with him to prevent people from talking to him. No one dared to be with Abu Tharr at his departure except the Imam Ali his two sons Al-Hassan and Al- Hussein his brother Aqeel and Ammar Ibn Yasir. By doing this they actually defied the order of the Caliph. This added to the deterioration of the relation between the Imam and the Caliph. Of the Imam's valedictory words to Abu Tharr were the following:
"Abu Tharr you opposed the rulers because they disobeyed God. Put your hope in Him. The rulers feared
you for personal interest and you feared they would
( 33 ) Ibn Al-Atheer Al-Kamil Part 3 p. 56.
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compromise your religion. Leave in their hands what they want to protect and run away with what you want to protect. These rulers are in a great need for the things you tried to deprive them of and you are in no need for the things they deprived you of. You will know who has the happy fate and who is more enviable.
Should the heavens and the earth close in on a righteous servant of God He will grant him an exit. Let the truth be your only friend and falsehood be your only enemy.
Had you approved their way they would have loved you; and had you shared the spoils with them they would have trusted you."(34)
Some historians say that Abu Tharr left Medina to Rabathah willingly but it seems improbable that Abu Tharr had chosen to become bedouin living in the desert rather than being in the city of the Prophet. However it is certain that he was exiled to Damascus before he left to Rabathah then he was brought back to Medina. He was not consulted in his exile nor in his return.
Abu Tharr settled in Rabathah living constantly there in difficulty and intolerable poverty until he died.
When he died there were not enough people to bury him.
Had not Abdullah Ibn Mas-ood with a few others (including Malik Al-Ashtar) passed by Abu Tharr would not have been buried.
The exile of Abu Tharr to Rabathah was a big political mistake on the part of the Caliph. The good Muslims were shocked by the exile of this outstanding companion for he was of an indomitable spirit in his endeavors for the truth.
He was a beloved of the Messenger and the Messenger said about him: "There is no one under Heaven and above the earth that is truer than Abu Tharr." The righteous Muslims felt toward what happened to Abu Tharr as they felt towards the great martyrs of the truth whose souls were filled with dedication to high ideals for which they lived and died.
( 34 ) Nahjul-Balaghah Part 2 pp.12-13.
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Abdullah Ibn Mas-ood
Abdullah Ibn Mas-ood another non-Qureshite outstanding companion also joined the opposition. Like Abu Tharr Abdullah had no political or material ambition. He was the treasurer of Kufah province and he resigned angrily when the Caliph wrote to him: ". . . You are only our treasurer leave Waleed (the Omayad governor of Kufah) alone with what he borrowed from the treasury." It is reported that Abdullah Ibn Mas-ood used to deliver a weekly sermon in which he included the following words: "Certainly the truest is the Book of God and the best guidance is the guidance of Mohammad. And the worst deed is that which does not conform with the teaching of God and His Messenger. For every such deed is an innovation and every innovation is a heresy and every heresy leads to Hell."(35)
Waleed informed the Caliph of Ibn Mas-ood's insinuating speeches and the Caliph summoned him. When Ibn Mas-ood entered the Mosque of the Prophet Othman said to the congregation: "The one that entered the Mosque is an evil insect which causes a person to vomit and secrete when it walks on its food." Ibn Mas-ood said: "I am not so but I was a companion of the Prophet at Badr Ohod Hudeibeyah the Moat and Hunain." Othman ordered one of his servants to throw Abdullah out of the Mosque. The servant carried him on his shoulders and violently threw him outside the Mosque.(36) Some of his ribs were broken. Then the Caliph withheld his salary. Abdullah lived two or three years after that continuing his opposition to Othman. When he died he willed that Othman should not pray over him and Ammar Ibn Yassir was his executor. Ammar buried Abdullah without informing the Caliph of Abdullah's death.
And Ammar Ibn Yasir
Ammar was a man of the earliest opposition to Oth-
( 35 ) Dr. Taha Hussein Al-Fitnat Al-Kubra Part 1 p. 160.
( 36 ) Dr. Taha Hussein Al-Fitnat Al-Kubra Part 1 pp. 160-161.
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man. He called upon the Muslims to fight the community of Quraish because it chose Othman for leadership and left Ali out. Like Ali Ammar saw in the personality of Othman a potential bridge over which the caliphate would pass from the good companions of Mohammad to the Omayads. The sequence of the events was destined only to confirm to Ammar and others what they expected. What happened to Abu Tharr and Abdullah Ibn Mas-ood made Ammar more serious in his opposition to Othman. Ibn Yasir was not the kind of man who keeps silent when he sees what is in conflict with the Book of God and the teachings of the Prophet.
Such opposition was expected to put Ammar in danger of severe punishment from the Caliph. Othman wanted to exile him as he had Abu Tharr but Ali and other companions raised strong objections which made him threaten to exile Ali himself. But Ali dared him to do that.
There were some gems of great value in the treasury and Othman gave those gems to his ladies. People talked about that and Othman was angered by their talk. He said while he was giving a sermon: "We shall take what we need from the treasury even if some people would be displeased." Ali replied: "Then you shall be prevented and stopped." And Ammar said: "I make God my witness that I am one of the first people who are displeased." Othman retorted angrily:
"Do you dare say that to me? Take him."
He was taken and Othman went to the place where Ammar was confined. He beat him up until Ammar fainted and he stayed in swoon until he missed the noon afternoon and sunset prayers. When he came back from his swoon he made his ablution made up his prayers and said:
"Praise be to God. This is not the first time I was tortured for my endeavors in the way of God."(37)
It is reported that a group of companions (among them Talhah Al-Zubeir Al-Miqdad and Ammar) wrote to Othman a letter in which they criticized a number of Othman's
deeds accused him of betraying his religion and warned
him that they would fight him. Ammar delivered the letter
( 37 ) Dr. Taha Hussein Al-Fitnat Al-Kubra Part 1 p. 167.
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to Othman. When Othman read a portion of the letter he asked Ammar: "Are you the only audacious among them to confront me with this?" Ammar answered: "I am your best advisor among them." Othman said to him: "Son of Sumayah (Ammar's mother) you have lied. Ammar retorted "I am by God son of Summayah and son of Yasir.".
Othman ordered his servants to lay Ammar on the floor and hold his hands and his legs. Then Othman kicked him with his foot in the stomach. This caused him to have a hernia.
Ammar was old and weak and he fainted.
Ammar was the most outspoken and the highest voice against Othman. His opposition to Othman counted heavily because of his brilliant past and because of what the Holy Prophet said about him.
OPPOSITION OUTSIDE MEDINA
The Qureshite Aristocracy in the Islamic society began at the beginning of the reign of the First Caliph. In his argument for the Qureshite leadership at the "Saqifat"
conference Abu Bakr said to the natives of Medinah that the Arabs would not accept a non-Qureshite leadership. For Quraish was the highest community among the Arabs and the community of the most honorable city.
Upon this the Medinites conceded the leadership to the Qureshites. Thus the majority of the Meccan and Medinite companions conceived it as tribal superiority. By this the Qureshite supremacy was established though the Faith of Islam the religion of equality denies any form of aristocracy.
This aristocracy grew during the reign of the Second Caliph and peaked during the reign of the Third Caliph.
The notion of Qureshite superiority evolved during Othman's reign and went far enough to view the Muslim world as a Qureshite Kingdom. This was destined to have a negative reaction on the part of the enlightened men who knew that Islam is a religion of equality and brotherhood. The Message of Islam aims at elevating every Muslim and dignifying all believers in God rather than dignifying a minority at the expense of millions
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The righteous Muslims were disturbed by Quraish's claim of superiority in the name of religion while the Omayads who became the leaders of the Qureshites were of the least righteous among the Muslims.
The spark of opposition outside Medina started in Kufah. Most of its people were Yemenites. It is reported that the beginning of this opposition took place during the time of Sa-eed Ibn Al-Auss who succeeded Waleed Ibn Aqabah in the gubernatorial office of Kufa. Historians disagree on the details of this event.
It is reported that some of the leaders of the city while they were visiting the governor spoke of the orchards of Kufa. A dialogue between them and the city Chief of Police Abdul-Rahman Ibn Khumeis took place and went as follows: Ibn Khumeis: "I wish all these orchards were owned by the governor and you the people of Kufah owned better than these orchards."
Malik Al-Ashtar: "Wish the governor better than these orchards but do not wish him to own our properties." Ibn Khumeis: "How did my wish harm you to make you so frown on me? By God if the governor wishes he would have these orchards."
Al Ashtar: "By God if he wants that he will not have it."
Sa-eed (angrily): "All these orchards are actually Quraish's garden." Al-Ashtar: "Do you make what we won through our spears and what God has given us a garden for you and your people?"
And others spoke supporting Al-Ashar.
Al-Ashtar: "Is anybody here? Don't let this man get away with what he said."
They jumped Ibn Khumeis treading on him severely until he fainted. Then they dragged him by his feet. Finally his face was sprayed with water until he woke up.
Ibn Khumeis said to Sa-eed: "The people whom you selected have killed me.".
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Sa-eed: "No one shall spend the evening with me after this.".
Other historians recorded that some people spoke in the presence of Sa-eed of the generosity of Talhah Ibn Obeidullah and that comments by the governor and his visitors went as follows:
Sa-eed: "A man that has the wealth of Talhah and his holdings ought to be generous. Should I possess what Talhah possesses I would make you live in prosperity."
A young man from the Asad Tribe: "I wish that you owned all the orchards that are on the two sides of the Euphrates.".
This irritated some of the men who were present and made them speak harshly to the youth.
The father of the youth: "He is too young. Do not punish him for what he said." The irritated men: "He is wishing Sa-eed our own properties." They jumped the youth. His father wanted to defend him. They beat the father and the son until they fainted. The members of the tribe of Asad learned about the event and came encircling the palace. Sa-eed persuaded them to leave and they left. ( 38)
Both versions of the event agree that Al-Ashtar and others with him stayed away from the governor and spoke loudly against Sa-eed and the Caliph. This was the occasion which made the opposition surface in Kufah. Whether the first or second report was the truth the occasion indicates that people during that time were fed up with Quraish its leaders their big claims and their over-reaching hands.
The event was actually the straw that broke the camel's back. The sequence of events was inevitably leading to some political explosion.
Abdullah Ibn Mas-ood's sermons in which he criticized the policy of Othman and his officers helped to open the eyes of the people of Kufah on the corruption in the government.
Abu Tharr's exile was also a factor in fermenting the
( 38 ) Ibn Al-Atheer Al-Kamil Vol.3 pp. 71-72.
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opposition. We have advanced that Al-Ashtar and others from Kufah were with Ibn Mas-ood at the time of the oppressed companion's burial.
What happened afterwards to Abdullah Ibn Mas-ood was also another factor. People of Kufah had a great esteem for this outstanding companion who was violently thrown out of the Holy Mosque by order of the Caliph.
People of Kufah knew Ammar Ibn Yasir and his brilliant record in Islam. He was the governor of their city during the reign of Omar. They had a great respect towards this outstanding companion. What happened to him at the hand of the Third Caliph was also an additional factor which made the explosion of the opposition from the righteous people of Kufah an expected event. The fire was about to start and it found its spark at Sa-eed's occasion.
The opposition of Kufah received the same kind of punishment Abu Tharr received. Exile became the regular punishment for the criticism of the government; and Damascus became the destination of the exiled critics. There they received their discipline at the hands of Muaweyah the strong man of the Islamic state.
The exiled Kufans were kept at the church of Mariam.
Muaweyah met them spoke to them and lectured them. The topic of his lecture was the distinction of Quraish in the Islamic and pre-Islamic history. He tried to substantiate the superiority of Quraish by the fact that all communities were invaded except the Qureshites whom God protected. He mentioned also that God made the caliphate in the Qureshite companions of the Prophet. Thus they are the qualified ones for leadership. Then he told them that God protected Quraish while they were unbelievers. "Do you think that He will not protect them while they are following His religion."(39)
He told them also that Abu Sufyan (his father) was the most honorable and the son of the most honorable among the Qureshites except the Prophet then he added: "I think
( 39 ) Ibn Al-Atheer Al-Kamil Vol 3 p. 70.
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that if Abu Sufyan were the father of all people all people would have been wise."(40)
Sa-sa-ah Ibn Souhan belied him saying: "Adam was better than Abu Sufyan. God created him by His own hand breathed in him from His spirit and ordered the angels to bow to him. He was the father of mankind. Yet we see among them the good and the weak the foolish and the wise.".
The logic of Muaweyah was full of distortion of facts.
Re said that his father Abu Sufyan was the best man after the Messenger (including Abu Bakr and Omar)
He forgot that the Divine protection to the Qureshite was not for the sake of Abu Sufyan his children and their likes from the Qureshites. It was rather for the sake of the Sacred House and for the sake of the Messenger the best of the descendants of Abraham. It was also in response to the prayer of Abraham the Prophet of God of which the Holy Qur'an informs us:
"And when Abraham said: 'My Lord make this a safe town and give its settlers of fruits to those of them who believe in God and the Hereafter.' The Almighty said: 'And whoever of them disbelieves I will give them a respite. Then I will drive them to the chastisement of Fire; terrible is the fate.' " ( 41)
Muaweyah did not know that the caliphate in the offspring of Abraham including the Qureshites was made by appointment from God. That appointment did not reach the unjust among them. We read in the Book of God:
"And remember when God tested Abraham by commandments and he fulfilled them. The Almighty said:
'I am making you Imam of the people.' Abraham said: 'And make imams from my offsprings.' The Almighty said: 'My covenant will not include the unjust.' "(42)
History tells us that Muaweyah freed the exiles and
( 40 ) Ibn Al-Atheer Vol.3 p. 71.
( 41 ) Chapter 2 verse 127.
( 42 ) Chapter 2 verse 125.
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when they went back to Kufah they resumed their opposition. Consequently they were exiled to Homs. They were placed under the authority of Abdul-Rahman Ibn Khalid Ibn Al-Waleed. This was harsher on them and more violent than Muaweyah. They showed him repentance and he released them. Al-Ashtar went back to the Caliph and the Caliph permitted him to go wherever he chose. He went back to Homs. When opposition grew stronger in Kufah Al-Ashtar went back to it. He and Yazeed Ibn Qais led a multitude to a place called Al-Jarah to prevent Sa-eed Ibn Al-Auss from re-entering Kufah. Sa-eed went back to Medina and the Kufans demanded from Othman to replace Sa-eed with Abu Musa.
We may realize the bitterness which exiled men used to feel when we read a message from Malik Al-Ashtar to Othman as an answer to the Caliph's letter to the people of Kufah reprimanding the opposition
"From Malik Ibn Al-Harth to the tested and sinful Caliph who is deviating from the precepts of his Prophet and turning his back on the rule of the Holy Qur'an.
"We have read your message. You ought to prohibit yourself and your officers from injustice aggression and exiling our righteous men. This will make us content to obey you. You alleged that we have wronged ourselves.
This is your conjecture which caused you to perish (spiritually) and made you consider inequity a justice and the wrong right. As to what we desire we want you to change and repent and to ask God His forgiveness for incriminating our righteous men exiling our good people driving us out of our homes and ruling us by our youth. We desire that you appoint Abdullah Ibn Qais Abu Musa governor of our city. We ask you to keep your Waleed and Sa-eed away from us. "(43)
The Caliph responded to this by appointing Abu Musa governor of Kufah.
The opposition to the Caliph's policy was not confined to Kufah. It was extended to Bassrah in Iraq and also to
( 43 ) Al-Balathori Ansabul-Ashraf Part 4 p. 46.
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Egypt. Historians inform us that Mohammad Ibn Abu Bakr and Mohammad Ibn Abu Hutheifah went to Egypt and instigated the people against Othman. With the presence of Abdullah Ibn Saad Ibn Abu Sarh in Egypt as its governor the two Mohammads did not need to bring to the Egyptians any additional evidence of the corruption in the government. It is reported that an Egyptian went to Medina complaining of the governor to the Caliph. When the complainer came back to Egypt the governor killed him.
It is reported also that a group of companions in Medina wrote to other companions at different provinces saying:
"If you want to make Jihad come to us. The religion of Mohammad is corrupted by our Caliph. By this people were turned against him."(44)
NOW PEOPLE REMEMBERED ALI
The regressing developments of the political events made the non-Qureshite Muslims realize the gravity of the erroneous attitude of the Qureshites toward Ali. Now they could clearly see the magnitude of the mistake which the members of the Electoral Convention had committed when they diverted the caliphate from him to Othman. By doing that they drove the nation into a crisis which it had never experienced before. It became obvious to the people of wisdom that the nation would not have had to be confronted with such a crisis if Ali were the Caliph. Thus they began to think that Ali's leadership was the solution to the problems of the nation.
People spoke of Ali loudly and Othman started to see that Ali's existence and his presence in Medina added to his difficulties. He asked him to leave Medina for his land in Yunbu that people might forget him; but when the crisis grew in dimension he asked him to come back to Medina that he might shield him against danger. Then Ibn Abbas came to him with a message from Othman asking him to leave for Yunbu hoping that people would stop circulating his name. The Imam said:
( 44 ) Ibn Al-Atheer Al-Kamil. Vol.3 pp. 73 and 83.
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"Ibn Abbas Othman wants to treat me like a camel going back and forth to fill the buckets with water. He told me to go to Yunbu then he asked me to come back.
Now he is asking me to go to Yunbu again. By God I have defended him until I feared that I am committing a sin." ( 45)
Ali faced in Othman a problem bigger than the problem which Othman was facing. It was in the hands of Othman to solve all his problems by changing his policy in handling the public funds dismissing his relative officials and keeping Marwan away from him. This could have regained him the confidence of the people and their satisfaction.
Ali on the other hand did not possess the means to solve his problem and the problem of the nation in Othman.
He was seeing through the light of God that the future and the fate of the nation would be decided to a great extent by what would happen to Othman. Othman had embarked on a policy which would enable the Omayads to rule the Muslim world for generations to come. Yet the Omayads were noted for their lack of sincerity toward Islam. They embraced Islam only after they were completely defeated.
Ali knew them very well as men and as children. He is the one who broke their back and humiliated them until they adopted the faith of Islam reluctantly. He knew that if they had the authority they would devour the public fund enslave the servants of God and corrupt His religion.
Othman had three alternatives: (1) Resign; (2) persist in his policy and refuse to resign or (3) change his policy drastically. The first two alternatives were evil and the third was not expected. If he were to persist in his policy he would be killed. His murder would be a terrible and ugly event. He would be the first imam to be killed by the Muslims. The Omayads the relatives of the Caliph already possessed enough power to enable them to challenge the good Muslims by waging war avenging his death using it for seizing authority.
( 45 ) Nahjul-Balaghah Part 2 p. 233.
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Should Othman be forced to resign and people elect a man to succeed him the Omayads having so much power would not surrender. They would be able to claim that Othman was the legitimate Caliph and that forcing him out of office would not remove the legality of his leadership. By this they would arrive at what they want. And it would become easier for them to reach their goal than if he were killed.
The third alternative was not expected. There was nothing in the behavior of Othman to indicate the possibility of the needed change. Even if he wanted to change his financial policy and dismiss his wicked relatives Marwan would dissuade him from doing that and he did not possess the will-power which would make him immune from his influence.
Ali knew all that. Yet he tried his best to reach the third alternative in order to avoid the evil of the other two alternatives. Historians inform us that a group of the companions of the Messenger who were living in Medina wrote to the companions who were settling on the borders of the Muslim state saying: "Come back to Medina. The "Jihad" is here." People spoke ill of Othman and none of the companions defended him except Zied Ibn Thabit Abu Osaid Al-Sa-idy Kaab Ibn Malik and Hassan Ibn Thabit. These were loyal to the Caliph because they had received his generous gifts.
The Imam Mediates The companions met together and spoke to Ali to mediate between them and Othman. He met the Caliph and spoke to him saying:
"The people behind me asked me to mediate between you and them. By God I don't know what to tell you.
Nor do I know something which you don't know. Nor can I point to matters of which you are ignorant. You have seen heard and accompanied the Messenger of God and acquired the honor of being his son-in-law.
You are not less expected to do good than Ibn Abu Quhafah (Abu Bakr) and Ibn Al-Khattab (Omar)
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You are closer than both of them to the Messenger of God and you have acquired through marriage what they did not acquire. Nor were they ahead of you in anything. I ask you in the name of God to be merciful to yourself. You are not suffering blindness nor ignorance.
The right road is clear and obvious and the demarcation of religion is standing.
"Othman remember that the best of the servants of God in the eyes of God is a just imam who is led to the truth and leads to the truth. Thus he establishes a well-known precept and abolishes an abandoned innovation. The worst of all is an unjust Imam who is erroneous leading to error. Thus he abolishes a well-known precept and revives an abandoned innovation.
"I have heard the Messenger of God saying: 'An unjust Imam will be brought on the Day of Judgement while he has no helper nor a vindicator. He will be thrown into hell. . . . I warn you of the wrath of God and His smite and chastisement. Certainly His chastisement is painful and severe. I warn you not to be the murdered imam of this nation. It is said that an imam will be killed and his death will open on the nation the door of killing and wars until the Day of Judgement. He will confuse the affairs of the nation and throw the Muslims into divisions that they will not be able to see the truth because of the height of the falsehood. . . .'" ( 46)
The words of the Imam did not please the Caliph. A dialogue between the two men took place as follows: Othman: "Omar appointed and kept in office people like those whom I appointed and kept in office."
Ali: "Omar appointed such people but he used to tread on their heads. When he knew of any minor violation by any of them he used to summon him and punish him severely. You are weakened because you are too lenient on your relatives.".
( 46 ) Ibn Al-Atheer Al-Kamil Part 3 p. 76.
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Othman: "They are your relatives also." Ali: "Yes they are but virtue is not in them."
Othman: "Do you not know that Omar appointed Muaweyah and kept him in office for the duration of his reign?"
Ali: "I ask you in the name of God. Do you not know that Muaweyah was afraid of Omar more than Yarfah Omar's servant?".
Othman: "Yes." Ali: "Muaweyah makes his decisions without consulting you then he tells people: 'This is the order of Othman.' You know it and you do not change anything. Nor do you stop him from doing what he is doing."(47)
Thus Ali unlike any other person did not take advantage of the difficulties of a Caliph whom he considered to be usurper of his right in leadership. He rose above that and was most protective of him endeavoring to correct the situation of his adversary because his fate had a bearing on the fate of the whole nation. But Othman considered his advice provocative. He went to the pulpit and delivered a fiery speech threatening the opposition with punishment. He was expected to do only that so long as Marwan was his chief advisor. Thus the fire of opposition became more inflamed.
THE CALIPH IS BESIEGED
The messages which were sent by the companions residing in Medinah to people of various provinces brought its expected results. Groups from Egypt Kufah and Bassrah came to Medinah asking the Caliph to dismiss his ruling relatives or resign. Otherwise they were ready to kill him.
When the Caliph realized the seriousness of the situation he came to Ali and asked him to mediate between him and his adversaries.
Ali asked him: "What are your terms for reconciliation?" The Caliph replied: "You are fully authorized to
pledge to them whatever you choose. I shall do whatever
you propose." Ali reminded him that he spoke to him re peatedly about certain corrective measures and that the Ca-
( 47 ) Ibn Al-Atheer Al-Kamil Part 3 p. 76.
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liph time after time promised to take those measures. Then the promises remained unfulfilled by the Caliph who was influenced by Marwan Muaweyah Ibn Amir and Abdullah Ibn Saad Ibn Abu Sarh. Othman replied: "I will disobey them and obey you."
Accompanied by thirty men from the Qureshites and the Medinites the Imam went to meet the Egyptian group.
He convinced them not to resort to violence and promised them on behalf of the Caliph to fulfill their demands of dismissing his relatives and changing his policy in handling the public fund. When he went back to the Caliph he advised him to go to the Mosque and pledge publicly to make the reform.
Repentance and Retreat The Caliph responded positively to the good advice. He went to the pulpit and addressed the congregation saying:
"I am the first one that should obey God. I ask God to forgive me for what I did. I shall repent to him. A man like me is expected to change and repent. When I come down let your leaders come and make a decision about me. By God if justice reduces me to a slave I shall do what a slave does and I shall be as humble as a slave. There is no escape from the anger of God but through Him. By God I shall give you the satisfaction and I will keep Marwan and my relatives away from me. I shall not seclude myself from you." (48)
These words moved the audience. They wept until tears moistened their beards and the Caliph wept and people hoped for the good.
Marwan was waiting. As soon as Othman came back to his home Marwan dissuaded him and brought him back to his old hard line. Marwan went out facing the multitude which were waiting for the reform. He reprimanded them and told them". . . You have come to rob us of the authority which is in our hands. Go away. By God if you challenge us you will see what will displease you ...".
( 48 ) Ibn Al-Atheer Al-Kamil Parr 3 p. 82.
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When Ali knew what happened he said: "Servants of God if I sit home he says: 'You let me down in spite of my relationship to you and what I am entitled to of your respect. If I try to help him and a good comes out of my effort Marwan dissuades him and deceives him. He has become an obedient tool in the hands of Marwan after having been the companion of the Prophet." He went to Othman and spoke to him angrily saying:
"You couldn't satisfy Marwan but by your deviation from your religion and wisdom. You have become like a ridden camel led by his rider to wherever he pleases.
By God I forsee that he will bring you to danger but he will not be able to take you out of it. I will not come back to you after this. You have ruined your honor and lost the power of judgement." (49)
Ali ceased to mediate between Othman and the rbels.
When Othman was besieged he came to him and told him: "I have the right of brotherhood of Islam relationship to you and of being a son-in-law of the Prophet. If none of these things existed and we were in pre-Islamic days it would be shameful to the children of Abd Munaf (the great grandfather of the Hashimites and the Omayads) to let a man from Tyme (Talhah Ibn Obeidullah) rob us of our authority.".
Talhah was strongly supporting the rebels. He helped them and approved their siege of Othman. Probably their invasion of Medina was the result of his communication and instigation.
Ali went to Talhah and found people gathering around him. He asked Talhah: "What are you involving yourself in?" Talhah replied: "It is too late." (He meant that Othman is coming to his end.) Ali went to the treasury and asked that it be opened. When the keys were not found he broke the door and distributed some of what was in the treasury among people who were gathering around Talhah.
They left him and Othman was pleased with that. Talhah came to Othman and said: "Amir Al-Muminine (Com-
( 49 ) Ibn Al-Atheer Al-Kamil Part 3 p. 82.
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mander of the Believers) I wanted something and God barred me from it." Othman replied: "By Cod you did not come repenting; you are only defeated. May God hold you accountable for what you did." (50)
Ibn Al-Atheer reported that Ibn Abbas said: "I came to Othman when he was besieged. (This was before Othman sent Ibn Abbas as a leader of the pilgrims during that year.) He (Othman) held my hand and led me to the door ordering me to listen to the words of the besiegers. Some of them were saying: 'What are we waiting for?' Others said: 'Let us wait. Probably he will change.' While we were standing. Talhah came and asked about Ibn Odais (One of the leaders of the Egyptian rebels) Ibn Odais went to Talhah confiding in him. When Ibn Odais returned he ordered his followers not to let anyone go into or come out of Othman's house.
Othman said to Ibn Abbas: "This is the order of Talhah. God take care of Talhah. He instigated these people against me. By God I hope that his share of the caliphate will be zero and that his blood will be shed." Ibn Abbas said: "When I wanted to leave the house they prevented me until Mohammad Ibn Abu Bakr interceded for me."(51)
As to Al-Zubeir it is said that he left Medina before Othman was killed. Some historians reported that he was present in Medina when Othman died. Ayeshah went on pilgrimage and while in her devotional duty she was urging people to repudiate Othman.
When Othman was besieged the rebels cut off his water supply. Ali came with a skin of water and spoke to Talhah saying: "This water has to be allowed to Othman " then it was allowed. He attempted another time to bring him water and spoke to the rebels saying: "What you are doing does not resemble the deed of the believers or unbelievers! Cut not this man from his water supply. The Romans and the Persians feed and give water to their prisoners." But the rebels refused to allow the water in.
( 50 ) Ibn Al-Atheer Al-Kamil Part 3 p. 84.
( 51 ) Ibn Al-Atheer Al-Kamil Part 3 p. 87.
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The siege of the Caliph continued for forty days. The rebels were trying to force him to change his policy or resign. He refused to resign saying: "I Will not take off a shirt which God put on me.".
Probably Othman was right in his refusal to resign. But he was wrong in saying that the caliphate was a shirt which God had put on him for his leadership was not by an appointment from God or His Messenger. The one who put the shirt on him was Abdul-Rahman Ibn Ouf and behind him the Qureshites; or we may say that the Second Caliph was the one who put the shirt on Othman.
It seems that the rebels were not determined to force the Caliph to resign nor were they willing to kill him. All they wanted from him was to change his policy in handling the public funds dismiss his relative governors and keep Marwan away from him. He promised to do that but he never fulfilled his promise. Thus they asked him to resign and he refused. Now some of the rebels resorted to violence.
Muaweyah Let the Caliph Down It is amazing that Muaweyah and the rest of the Omayad governors did not seriously attempt to rescue their relative Caliph. They did not send armies to break the siege around him or to prevent the invaders from killing him. Yet the Caliph asked their help. lt is reported that Muaweyah sent an army which came near Medina but did not enter it while the Caliph was besieged. Muaweyah ordered the commander of the army not to do anything until he received his order. He told him: "Say not that the present sees what the absent does not see. You are the absent and I am the present.".
And So the Medinites
The other thing which can be easily noticed in the
recorded events of those days is the absence of any resistance
on the part of the Medinites. They neither challenged the
invading rebels nor did they prevent them from killing the
Caliph. It seems that the Qureshites from the inhabitants of
Medina (with the exception of Omayads) were not in
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sympathy with Othman. They were fed up with the Omayads and the extreme growth of their influence in the Muslim world. The majority of the Qureshites in Medina were sharing with Ayeshah Talhah and Al-Zubier their feelings towards the Caliph.
The majority of the Medinites were displeased with Othman's policy of glorifying the Qureshites and putting the Omayads the least religious clan among the Qureshites on the necks of the Muslims. The natives of Medina evidently did not feel that they owed the Caliph a serious support because they did not receive what the Qureshites received of his generosity. By their nature the natives of Medina were more religious than the Qureshites.
Thus the majority of the inhabitants of Medina let Othman down and did not defend him though they were much more numerous than the invading rebels.
The Imam Ali was the companion most opposed to the murder of Othman and the most sincere in trying to correct the Caliph's policy. He did not only show his sympathy toward him by word; he tried to defend him by arm. He endangered the lives of his two sons Al-Hassan and Al- Hussein who were to him more valuable than his two eyes.
He sent the two young men to protect Othman and ordered them to stand in arm at his door to prevent the rebels from entering his house.
Finally the rebels were informed that armies from various cities were on their way to Medina to rescue Othman.
Some of the rebels felt that the only solution was to kill the Caliph. Since they could not enter the door they climbed up to the house from over the wall and killed him while the guards at the door did not know what took place.
Thus what Ali tried fervently to prevent occurred and all his efforts to prevent it from happening failed. The murder of the Caliph was an ugly event whose consequences were dangerous to the future of Islam and Muslims. This was not necessary to happen had the Caliph listened to Ali's advice by purging his regime from the wicked officials and purifying the state from corruptions.
Had he listened to Ali's advice by following the plicy
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of his two predecessors Abu Bakr and Omar Othman would not have been killed. But Othman was not in control of the affairs. Marwan son of the exile of the Prophet was the actual ruler of the Muslim world and the chief advisor of the Caliph. He was able to steer him in any direction he chose.
However I doubt that Othman was able even if he wanted to dismiss Muaweyah who had become stronger than the Caliph. Suppose that Othman told Muaweyah to leave his post and he refused to do that. Would Othman attempt to force him out of office? And had he enough power to do that?
OBSERVATION
As we conclude our brief presentation of the events of the days of Othman and his sad end we ought to remember the following:
The caliphate of Othman and its events have proven that leadership of the Muslim world after the Prophet should have been by selection from the Messenger rather than by election of the companions. He was the only one who was supported by revelation and Divine inspiration. He knew the best qualified for leadership among the members of his house and companions.
The leadership should not have been left to the chances
of elections by the Muslims in general or by the companions
of the Messenger or by an aristocracy such as that of the
Quraish community in particular. Nor should it have been
left to the chance of selection by a direcly or indirectly
elected caliph. Nor should it have been left to the election
by members of the Electoral Convention. An election or
selection such as this might bring the best or the second
best or the worst to power. This is dangerous for the future
of a nation which carries a message to itself and to the
world especially when the nation is still at the beginning
of its progress and growth. Such an election is bound to
bring some time to power a weak leadership which is unable to carry the message. It may bring at another time a
strong leadership that deliberately or inadvertently detours
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the nation and the message from their right road which was prescribed by the man of the message.
The incidental success of the first election by companions and first selection by an elected Caliph which brought Abu Bakr and Omar to power made the Muslims the historians and the scholars overlook the destructive failure which was caused by the election of the Third Caliph. The accomplishments of the first two Caliphs have dazzled the eyes of the Muslims. They could not see that the events of Othman's caliphate had given clear evidence that the election is not a safe road for a nation of a reformatory message.
The Muslims have forgotten the obvious fact that the purpose of the Islamic message was not to establish a righteous government for only twelve or thirty years. The purpose of the Heavenly message was rather much higher and longer.
When the Prophet at Chadeer Khum declared the leadership of Ali and the rest of the purified members of his House he was following only a natural course. This is what is supposed to be done by any head of state when he is about to leave his office.
This would be obviously true when the head of the state is a carrier of an extremely important message upon which the state is founded and his government is supposed to carry that message to the nations of the world as well as to its own people.
Any deviation that happens to the message by ignorance weakness or impiety of the leadership may put the whole message in jeopardy. The Holy Prophet was looking at the future through the light of God when he proposed while on his deathbed to have for the nation a written directive after which the nation would not go astray.
He foresaw that the Muslims would face after him many faith-testing crises. Therefore it was highly imperative to select for the nation a truly qualified leader in order to keep that nation on the right road.
It was most unfortunate that Omar supported by other companions objected to the Prophet's proposal accusing
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him of hallucinations and saying the Book of God sufficed.
The events of the Electoral Convention which brought Othman to power and the events which took place during his caliphate and their consequences have revealed the gravity of Omar's error. The Book of God did not prevent him from forming his prejudiced Electoral Convention which deprived Ali of leadership and brought Othman to power. The Book of God did not prevent Othman from committing his classical mistakes nor did it prevent the Muslims from their violent reaction toward his mismanagement and waging several bloody civil wars after his violent death.
For the Book of God to function and prevent people from taking erroneous direction it has to be coupled with an efficient and firm leadership equipped with a profound knowledge of the interpretation of the Book as well as the teaching of the Holy Prophet. Such a leadership makes the Book of God operative and drives people to the Qur'anic path.
This leadership is what the Messenger of God wanted to secure for the nation through his proposed written directive.
This is what the Prophet meant in his declaration on the day of Ghadeer Khum when he told the Muslims that he was leaving to them the two elements which would secure them against deviation from the right road the Book of God and the members of his House and that the two will never part with each other.
The objection to the Prophet's proposed written directive cost the nation its political and spiritual unity and inflicted on the nation irreparable damage.
When the companions ignored the Prophet's declaration at Ghadeer Khum and rejected his proposed document they were motivated by their self-interest.
They were unwilling to give Ali the leadership after the
death of the Prophet because they did not want to concede
the caliphate to the Hashimites. To allow Ali to succeed
the Prophet was to admit at least implicitly that his leadership was decreed by God and His Messenger who testified
that the members of the House of the Prophet will never
( 290 )
part with the Holy Qur'an. This would keep the leadership in this most honored group. The Meccan companions of various clans were unwilling to give up their ambitions.
They wanted to keep the caliphate competitive by giving it to a non-Hashimite Meccan. This should secure its competitiveness and allow companions from various clans to enter the race for leadership because they are not better than each other.
This theory worked for them for a while. Three companions (Abu Bakr Omar and Othman) from three Meccan clans alternated on the leadership within thirteen years. The ambitious companions however lately woke up during the reign of Othman discovering to their dismay that their hopes of reaching the High Office was fading out.
They faced what they were trying to avoid.
The Omayads were about to render the caliphate non-competitive because they had already dominated the Muslim world during the first six years of Othman's reign.
They were about to establish a royal dynasty based not on Holiness and brilliant Islamic record as that of the members of the House of the Prophet but rather based on power obtained by corruption usurpation and domination. Its first expected outcome was to bar any ambitious companions from reaching the High Office. The first casualties of this development would be the dreams of Talhah Al- Zubeir Abdul-Rahman and Ayeshah.
Motivated by the fear of Omayads' domination these ambitious people started their campaign against the Third Caliph. They tried to thwart the dream of establishing a royal dynasty and re-open to the members of the Electoral Convention the Avenue of Leadership.
These ambitious companions were not afraid of Ali for they believed they could block his way to the caliphate if Othman died. Quraish was against him and the Qureshites were the king-makers. No one knew this more than Ali who told the Hashimites at the time of the Electoral Convention: "As long as your people (the Qureshites) are obeyed (in what is to be done to you) you will never be given the leadership.".
( 291 )
However the ambitious companions' expectation did not come true. They did not take in their calculation the fact that Quraish would lose the political control for a short time after the death of Othman when people other than the Qureshites would be the king-makers.
source : http://www.imfi.ir
